Sound Basics

Cables
Mixers
Microphones
Amps and Speakers

Connectors
Microphones

Professional quality will

always use either XLR
or TRS

XLR is the most common

Locking connector for
greater reliability

3 pin XLR

Connectors
Microphones

Pin out

Term which defines

which conductors land on
which pins
There are standards for
different devices
The standards change in
different parts of the
world

Pin 1 Ground
Pin 2 Signal Hot
Pin 3 Signal Return

Connectors

Tip Ring Sleeve

Used for balanced mic

signals
More often used
unbalanced for multiple
channel connections

Balanced

Unbalanced

Pin 1 Shield

Pin 1 Signal Return (-)

Pin 2 Signal Hot (+)

Pin 2 Signal 1 Hot (+)

Pin 3 Signal Return (-)

Pin 3 Signal 2 Hot (+)

Connectors

RCA plugs

Sometimes called phono

plug
Not to be confused with
phone plugs
Always unbalanced

Pin 1 Signal Hot (+)

Pin 2 Signal Return (-)

Cables
Wire

One individual conductor

Cable

Two or more conductors combined together in a

flexible jacket

Cables

Cables in theatrical applications receive very rough

treatment

Even the best audio equipment in the world will not work
with damaged cables!
Coiling

Stepped on, genie lifts and forklifts roll over, twisting and pulling

The over the forearm method is about the worst thing you can do
to any cable
The wires inside the cable have a natural lay.
They will coil nicely if they are allowed to
Forcing the wires to bend will weaken and eventually break the
wire causing shorts or intermittent connections.

How to coil cable

Cables

Cables should always be run cleanly

Use the shortest lengths you can.

Avoid large coils when possible
This allows for an easy concentration of induced noise
Never bend cables over sharp edges or right angles
Dropping a cable over and I-beam for example
Always tie up or tape down under carpets or mats or use
industrial cable covers.
Avoid using gaff tape directly on cable jackets.

Tape will often leave behind a residue of stickiness

If two adhesive sides come together it is very difficult to remove.

Cables

Snakes

A cable with multiple

pairs of conductors, each
with its own screen
protected by an overall
insulating jacket

Tails

Break out
box

Sound Control
Mixer - Heart of the Audio System

Mixer - Heart of the Sound system

Sound Board, Audio Console, Mixing desk

Main tool of the operator (Board Operator)

Basic Purpose - Controls

What is it - Selects audio signals from various sources

Devices are connected to input channels

Microphones
Output channels of CD players, MD players, DAT players,
computers

How Loud will it be - Controls signal level (volume)

Where is it going - Sends audio to various locations

Devices are connected to outputs

Power amplifiers
Input channels of MD players, DAT players, Computers

Cue Control
Audio System Sources, Control, Destinations

Equipment System is the Primary Tool of

Modern Theatre Sound Design:

Block Diagram - Foreigner Setup

Mixer
MD 1

1-2

MD 2

3-4

1-2

Amp

L/R
Cass
Computer

5-6

Upstage
L/R

Amp

Mono

Cluster

7-8
Input
Channels

3
Group/ Outs

Amp

Radio
Record
Player

Input Buss
This

is the section where audio signals from

microphones and/or playback equipment
enters the mixer
This is the area where impedance matching
and Balanced / Un-balanced lines must be
carefully watched
The input buss typically starts at the rear of
the console with either XLR or TRS
connectors

Input Buss

Input Buss

Rear view of a Mackie t24

Close up of Pre-amp section

Input channel #

Pad / low end roll off

Gain adjust

Equalization section

Onboard equalization control will vary greatly

Simple tone control

Treble and Base

A fancier version of treble and base control

5 band EQ

Boost or attenuate high frequencies (treble) or low frequencies (base)

Only adjusts a preset range of frequencies

Hi Mid Lo

Simply varies the balance between high and low frequencies

Able to boost of attenuate 5 different ranges of frequencies

Parametric EQ

Able to select which frequency range to control and then boost or cut
it

Equalization section
High freq. control

High-mid with selectable

frequency range

Low-mid with selectable

frequency range

Low frequency control

Signal Routing

Each input channel will be assignable to one or more output

channels
Very often one selector button will assign the input to two separate
outputs

1-2 or 3-4 for example

The Pan Pot (Panoramic Potentiometer) adjusts the level of signal going
to each of the pairs

This is usually to be avoided for theatrical use

Look for single output selection control if possible

PFL Pre-fade Listen. Sometimes called solo

Example: With the pan pot centered and 1-2 selected, the entire signal is sent
to outputs 1 and 2 equally. If you turn the pot to the left, more signal will be
sent to output 1 than output 2

Usually available to send the signal to a studio monitor or headphones to

allow operator to listen to channel without having to send it into the house

Channel Mute turns the channel off. Useful when using wireless mics

Signal Routing
Pan Pot

Output selection

Mute
Note: PFL not available on this model

Output Section
This

is the area where audio signals will

leave the mixer, heading toward

Effects processors

EQs, delay units, reverb units, recording devices

Power amplifiers and eventually loudspeakers

Output plugs will typically be

Balanced XLR line level

Balanced TRS line level
Unbalanced phone plug line level
Unbalanced RCA plug line level

Output Section

Sub or group outputs

Left, Right and Main outputs

Auxiliary outputs

Output Section

Sub-group output faders

Sometimes called groups, subs or submasters
Act as a master fader control for any inputs assigned to it
Typically these are cabled to power amplifiers
Main outputs
Sometimes called Left-Right, Stereo or Mix
Essentially two additional outputs, where the manufacturer has
taken a guess as to what the end user will use them for
Sub groups can usually be combined and selectively assigned to
the main output
Master output
Sometimes called Mono
The main outputs can be combined together and controlled from
one master fader

Flying Faders
Automated

mixers are becoming more and

more common
Started simply to record levels in recording
studios

Often had 60 or more inputs levels to write down

and could have many many setups.
Flying faders would remember where the faders
were set and you could restore to any setting with
the push of a button

Flying Faders
Today

mixers are capable of remembering

output selections, EQ settings, pan settings
etc.
For live mixing it is REQUIRED to still have
actual faders which an operator can move

Performers will never do the exact thing every

night
The board operator must be able to easily make
adjustments to levels on the fly

How a microphone functions

Dynamic microphones

Based on a moving coil of

wire
Think of the reverse of a
loudspeaker
Sound waves push on a
diaphragm which in turn
moves a coil of very fine wire
through a magnetic field
Produces current
proportional to the sound
waves

Dynamic microphones
Usually

very robust and durable

Very often used on stage where rough handling or

dropping is common
Damage is most often caused by breaking
suspension wires

Two wires which hold the diaphragm and coil in place

Often

do not produce a flat frequency

response and not very sensitive to low SPL

The relatively massive coil of wire takes a great

deal of power to make move

Condenser microphones

Creates a capacitor using the

diaphragm as one plate.

Capacitor is used to store an

electric charge. Changing the
distance between plates changes
its ability to do that.
Requires the plates to be charged
by an external source
Battery, phantom power
As the diaphragm moves, it causes
a ripple in the current from the
phantom power. This ripple is
proportional to the sound waves

Condenser microphone
Due

to the lightweight diaphragm, only small

pressure changes are required to produce an
audio signal.

Very sensitive to small SPL

Much flatter frequency response than dynamic

Much

more susceptible to damage

Requires external power supply to function

Directional properties

Every microphone will have a polar pattern

Description of the sensitivity of the microphone

related to the direction the sound is coming
from
Omni-directional

Sensitive from all directions

Used for ambient noise recording or where the
sound source is moving and the mic cannot

Often on lavaliere mics

Sound is often general and unfocused.

Feedback more likely

Omni-directional
polar pattern

Directional properties

Uni-directional
Mostly sensitive from one direction and less
from all others
Cardioid pattern

Sound is mostly picked up from the front, but

some from the sides as well to allow for some
movement of the mic off axis
Most common pattern, good for general use
Most common on hand held mics

Cardioid polar
pattern

Super and Hyper Cardioid pattern

Less sensitive to the sides, more sensitive to the

rear
Sometimes called a shotgun mic
Very directional
Super cardioid
polar pattern

Directional properties

Bi-directional
Sensitive from the front and back and
much less to the sides
Not much use on stage
Variable directionality
Polar pattern is adjustable to different
patterns
Seems like a good idea, but rarely works
perfectly well

Bi-directional pattern

RF (wireless) microphones

A microphone which transmits its audio signal using

radio frequencies rather than a cable

The mic has a radio transmitter built into it which transmits

to a receiver off-stage. The receiver then sends the audio
signal to a mixer

Most often in the form of a wireless

Vocal mic transmitter is built into the body of the mic

Lavaliere small mic capsule is clipped onto clothing or
taped to the head (preferred). The mic capsule is wired to
a small pack with the transmitter and batteries.

RF (wireless) microphones
The

frequency that the packs transmit on are

very important

Usually transmit in the VHF or UHF range and are

susceptible to interference from other radio
sources
Diversity receivers

MUCH more interference resistant than non-diversity

Involves two separate receivers spaced apart from
each other

The system will select the strongest signal

RF (wireless) microphones

Lavaliere mic mounting

Usually mounted on the center of the forehead or over the ear

Toupee clips, bobby pins, high quality surgical tape.

Spirit gum only if ALL else fails

Occasionally mounted on clothing

Traditional use. TV interviews for example

Poor sound quality

Low frequency boost from being near the chest

Wind or clothing noise likely
Sound level changes as performer moves their head

Boom mounting a.k.a. Madonna Mic

Mounted on a rig over the ear which puts mic very close to the mouth.
Best sound. Poor aesthetics.

Power Amplifiers

An amplifier is an electronic device which transforms

small voltages and currents into large ones.
Ratings

Wattage
Generally speaking more is better
Not all manufactures measure power ratings the same way.
You must be comparing apples with apples

Peak the maximum power the amp can ever output

Continuous the maximum power the amp can output without
clipping
RMS Root-Mean-Squared. 0.707 peak power.
Correlates well to the real work done by the amp

Loudspeakers
A

loudspeaker consists of one or more

Drivers mounted in an Enclosure
Dynamic cone driver

The most common style of driver used theatrically

or in live musical performance

Dynamic Cone Driver

Voice coil attached to the end of a

paper or plastic cone
The voice coil is suspended between
two poles of a permanent magnet
The spider keeps the voice coil
centered and acts as a spring to return
the cone
AC current from the amp flows through
the voice coil, creating an
electromagnet

When North of the voice coil lines up

with north of the permanent magnet,
they repel. When the voice coil polarity
reverses, they attract
Causes the cone to push forward and
backward with the same frequency as
the AC signal.

Dynamic Cone Driver

The louder the volume the speaker is called upon to produce, the
more current the amplifier supplies and the longer the back-andforth motion performed by the voice coil / cone assembly
High frequency sounds rapidly vibrating cones
Cones must be very light in order to move very quickly
Very small gauge wire in voice coil susceptible to heat build-up
Tweeter
Low frequency sounds require a great deal of air to move
Cones must be very large to push great quantities of air
Weight is not an issue because of the low frequencies
Larger gauge wire in the voice coil can take more heat
Woofer

Enclosures

Fancy term for a box

A great deal of
engineering goes into
these boxes
The cone pushes air in
both directions. It is
important to consider
what happens to the
sound coming from the
back of the speaker

Enclosures
Enclosures

must be built very solid and

heavy so as to not rattle and vibrate
themselves
The inside of the cabinet is usually filled with
sound absorbing materials such as foam or
fiberglass insulation