Lecture 1-General Introduction To Mechatronics

General Introduction to
Mechatronics
CODE: MEBC 1206
Number of credits: 6
Kamoleka, Masoud
MSc(Renewable Energy), UDSM
BSc(Electromechanical Eng), UDSM
MODULE STRUCTURE
1.
Theory of Mechatronics
Introduction to Mechatronics
Basic definition-advantage and disadvantage
of automation
Needs of Mechatronics
General application of Mechatronics in
Manufacturing
2
MODULE STRUCTURE Cont

2.
SENSORS (TRANSDUCER)
Terminology, performance
characteristics
Displacement, Position and Proximity
sensors
Velocity and motion sensors
Force/fluid pressure sensor
Liquid flow and liquid level sensors
Temperature and light sensors
Selection of sensor

3.
Actuators in Pneumatic and Hydraulics Systems

Actuation systems
Pneumatic and hydraulics systems

Directional control valve
Pressure control valve
Cylinders
Processes control valves
Rotary actuators

4.
ELECTICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
Electrical systems
Mechanical switches
Solid state switches
Principles of operation of solenoid
Types, specification, and control of DC and AC
Motors
Stepper motors
5

5. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
(PLC):
Introduction to different types of PLC
6. FAULT FINDING:
Fault detection techniques, common

hardware faults.
7. INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS:
Introduction, types and application of

industrial robots.
6
References
[1] Bolton W. Mechatronics 3ed. Person Education Asia
[2] Bradley. A. et al, Mechatronics in Production and Processes
[3] Venkantaraman, C. R. Fundamentals of Mechatronics Sapn
Contacts Hour
Event
Lectrure
Practical
Hours/Week
2
2
Model of Assessment
Assessment
Marks
Theoretical Tests
20%
Practical Tests
20%
End of Semester Examination
60%
Total
100%
Mechatronics theory
Consider the automated production line; such line may involve a
number of production processes that are all carried out automatically

in the correct sequence and in the correct way. All these are example
of integration of electronic control system, and mechanical
engineering
Such control systems generally use microprocessors as controllers and
have electrical sensors extracting information from the mechanical

inputs and outputs via electrical actuators to mechanical systems
A microprocessor can be just considered as being essentially a
10
collections of logic gates and memory elements that are not wired up
as individual components but whose logic functions are implemented
by means of software
What is mechatronics?
Mechatronics is the
combination of mechanical
engineering, electronics
engineering and software
engineering
Mechatronics is the synergistic
integration of mechanical
engineering, electronics, control
and computers; all integrated
through the design process to
create the useful product.
11
Mechatronics is at the
intersection between several
disciplinary areas, as represented
by these Venn diagrams
What is mechatronics?
Mechatronics
basically refers to mechanical

electronic systems and normally described as a
synergistic
combination
of
mechanics,
electrical, electronics, computer and control
which, when combined, make possible the
generation of simple, more economic, and
reliable systems.
Mechatronics is an amalgamation mechanics,
electronics and information technology intended

to raise the intelligence level and flexibility of
The term "mechatronics" was first assigned by Mr. Tetsuro Mori, a
products
and
devices
senior
engineer
of the
Japanese company Yaskawa, in 1970.
12
Advantage of Mechatronics
i.
Improve productivity
More goods produced per manufacturing floor area, machine installed
and human work force. In term of machines, mechatronics usually

increases mechanization thus yielding more machine hours per day
ii.
13
Reduction of person accidents
Advantage of Mechatronics Cont
iii. Better product quality

Enhance product quality which improves competitive position and
reduces waste and reworks

Improved competitive position naturally translates into higher volume
leading to added economic advantages

Human inadequacies, such as dexterity, awareness, cognition, and other
manufacturing and processing industries variables such as temperature,

pressure, chemical composition flow etc, are not measurable by human
operators. These inadequacies and limitations are amongst two most
compiling forces that necessitated automation done by mechatronics
systems.
14
Disadvantage of Mechatronics
i.
High investment cost: high cost of designing,

manufacturing and maintaining mechatronics system
ii.
Vulnerability to downtime exists because of increasing

complexity of mechatronics system
iii. More management attention
15
Needs of Mechatronics
Mechatronics responds to industrys increasing demand for
engineers who are able to work across the boundaries of

narrow engineering disciplines to identify and use the
proper combination of technologies for optimum solutions
to todays increasingly challenging engineering problems.
Mechatronics covers a wide range of application areas
16
including consumer product design, instrumentation,

manufacturing methods, motion control systems, computer
integration, process and device control, integration of
functionality with embedded microprocessor control, and
the design of machines, devices and systems possessing a
degree of computer-based intelligence.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Sensor, which responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a
signal which is related to the quantity
Example, a thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a
temperature and the output is an e.m.f, which is related to temperature value.
Physical
Variable
Sensor
Signal
Variable
Signal
Display
Value of
quantity
Conditioner
A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a condition
which is suitable for either display, or if not suitable, a control system will function
Example. The output from thermocouple is rather small. e.m.f and might be fed through
an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is a signal conditioner.
A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is displayed. This might
for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.
17
Sensors (Transducer)
The main function of sensor is to
convert the physical variables into
signal variables, and these signal
variables can be processed further into
the measurement system
Measurand Physical
Variable
Physical process
18
Senso
r
Signal
variable
Displa
y
Sensors (Transducer) Cont

In many cases it is necessary for the instrument to
provide a digital signal output so that it can interface
with a computer-based data acquisition or
communications system. If the sensor does not
inherently provide digital output, then the analog
output of the sensor is converted by an analog to
digital converter (ADC) as shown below,
Measur
and
19
Physical
Measurement
variable
Sens
or
Analog
Analog
Signal
Signal
variabl
variabl
e
e
Amplif
er
A/D
Conver
ter
Digital
Signal
variabl
e
Comput
er
Display
Types of transducer
Transducer can be classified asPassive- where depend on additional of external power
or energy
Active transducer- self power generating transducer
20
Types of transducer
Another method of classification of transducer is from the
point of view of electrical parameter involved, namely,

Capacitive transducer
Inductive transducer
Resistive transducer
Magneto-electric transducer
Photo-electric transducer
Piezo-electric transducer
Thermo-electric transducer
Radioactive transducer
21
TERMINOLOGY AND PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS
22
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Range and span
The range of a transducer defines the limits between
which the input can vary.
The span is maximum value of the input minus the
minimum value.
Span = max input min input

23
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement
and the true value of the quality being measured
Error = measured value true value
If a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25

C when the actual temperature is 24 C , then the error is 1
C. If the actual temperature had been 26 C then the error
would have been 1 C
A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2 when the
true change should have been 10.5. The error is 0.3
24
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Accuracy
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated
by measurement system might be wrong. It is thus the
summation of all possible errors that are likely to
occur. Accuracy is often expressed as the percentage
of the full range output or full-scale deflection. A
sensor might, for example, be specified as having an
accuracy of 5% of full range output. Thus if the
range of the sensor was, say, 0 to 2000 C, then the
reading given can be expected to be within + or -100C
of the true reading.
25
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output
you get per unit input i.e. output/input for the example,
resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5/0C
26
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different outputs from the same
value of quantity being measured according whether
that value has been reached by continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing
change. This effect is called hysteresis
The Fig shows an out put with the
hysteresis error as the maximum
difference in output for increasing
and decreasing values
27
ysteresis and Hysteresis error
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Linearity and Non-Linearity Error
In linear sensor and many transducer the input phenomena
has a linear relationship with the output signal. In most
sensors, this is desirable feature. When the relationship is
not linear, the conversion from the sensor output (eg.
voltage) to a calculated quantity (eg. force) becomes more
complex
28
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Linearity and Non-Linearity Error
Few transducers, however, have a truly linear
relationship and thus errors occur as a result of the
assumption of linearity. The error here is considered
as a maximum difference from the straight line.
29
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer
are used to describe its ability to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input value.
Repeatability
30
Max Min. value given

100%
Full range
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Stability
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same
out put when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time
The term DRIFT is often used to describe the change in
output that occur over time

Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when
there is zero input
31
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Dead band/time or dead space
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range
of input values for which there is no output.

The dead time is the length of time from the application
of an input until the output begins to respond the change
32
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range, the output signals
for some sensors may change in small steps. Therefore, we can define
resolution as a smallest change in the input value that will produce an
observable change in the output. For
example, if a sensor measures up to 10 inches of linear displacements,
and it outputs a number between 0 and 100, then the resolution of the
device is 0.1 inches
And next example, for a sensors giving a digital output the smallest
change of input signal is 1bit. Thus, for a sensor giving a data word of
N bits i.e total of 2N bits, then the resolution is generally expressed as
1/2N
33
Sensor characteristics
Static characteristics
are the values given when steady-state condition occur i.e.
the value given when the transducer has settled down after
having received some input.
Dynamic characteristic
Refer to the behavior between the time that the input value
changes, and the time that the value given by the transducer
settles down to the steady-state value.
34

sensors
35

sensors
Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of amount by which some object has been

moved
Position sensor is concerned with a determination of the
position of some object with reference to some reference

position.
Proximity sensors are a form of position sensors and are
used to determine when an object has moved to within

some particular critical distance of the sensor
36

sensors Cont
Displacement and position sensors
can be grouped into two basic types
Contact sensors in which the measured
object comes in to mechanical contact with

sensor
Non-contacting, where there is no physical
contact between the measured object and

the sensor
37

sensors Cont
The following are examples of
commonly used displacement sensors
Potentiometer sensor
Strain-gauged element
Capacitive element
Differential transformer
Inductive proximity switch
Optical encoder
Pneumatic sensors
Hall-effect sensors
38

sensors Cont
Consists of resistance element with
sliding contact which can be moved over

the length of the element
Such element can be used for linear or
rotary displacements, the displacement
being converted into a potential different
The rotary potential meter consists of a
circular wire-wound track or a film of
conductive plastic over which a rotatable
sliding contact can be rotated
2
3
39
A rotary Potentiometer

sensors Cont
With a constant input voltage

Vs, between terminal 1 and 3,
the out put voltage Vo between
terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction
of the input voltage, the fraction
depending on the ratio of the
Vo R 23
Vs R 13
resistance R23 between terminal

2 and 3 compared with the total
resistance R13 between terminal
40
1 and 3.

sensors Cont
If the track has a constant resistance

per unit length, i.e per unit angle, then
the output is proportional to the angle
through which the slider has rotated
Hence an angular displacement can be
converted into a potential difference
Errors due non-linearity of the track
tends to range from less than 0.1% to
1%.
If the potentiometer has N turns, the
resolution as a percentage is 100/N
41
The track resistance tends to range

from about 20 to 200k

sensors Cont
Slider
42
The potential difference across the

load VL is only directly proportional to
Vo if the load resistance is infinite, i.e
VL Vo
For finite loads, however the effect of
the load is to transform what was a
linear relationship between output
voltage and angle into non-linear
relationship.
The resistance RL is in parallel with
the fraction x of the potentiometer
resistance Rp in the circuit as a
potential divider, as the illustrate
below

sensors Cont
Combined resistance is
RL // xRP
xRL R p
RL xRP
The total resistance across the

source voltage is thus
Total resistance R p 1 x
Slider
xRL R p
RL xRP
Since the circuit is a potential divider

Therefore
VL
xRL RP RL xRP
VS RP (1 x) xRL RP RL xRP
43
VL
x
Vs
x ( R P R L )(1 x ) 1

sensors Cont
VL
x
Vs
x( R P R L )(1 x) 1
If the load is of infinite resistance then we have
VL xVS
Slider
Therefore, the error introduced by the

load having a finite resistance is
Error xVS V L
Error xVS
Error VS
44
xVS
R L )(1 x) 1
x( RP
RP 2
x x3
RL

sensors Cont
Example
Find the non-linearity error with a
potentiometer of resistance 500,
when at a displacement of half its
maximum slider travel, which results
from there being a load of resistance
10k. Given that,
the
supply
voltage
RP 2
3
Error
S
is 4V.
R
L
45

sensors Cont
STRAIN-GAUGED ELEMENT
Electrical resistance stain-gauges are made
from fine high resistance conductors like

constantan (60%Cu+ 40%Ni) or nichrome
(80%Ni+20%Cr) in a form of metal wire ,
metal foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor
in a wafer-like and can be stuck onto
surface like a postage
R R
When subjected
to
R strain, its resistance R
R
changes, the fractional
change in resistsnce
being proportional
to the strain
R
G
46

sensors Cont
wire
Connection
leads
47
Metal wire

sensors Cont
Metal
foil
Connection
leads
Metal foil
48

sensors Cont
Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed

as the gauge factor, since the strain is ratio
(change in length/original length)
Then the resistance change of a strain gauge is a
measurement of the change in length of the element
to which the strain gauge is attached.
The gauge factor G, of metal wire or foil strain
gauges with the metal generally used is about 2.0
49

sensors Cont
Strain gauges
Rings
Strain gauges
U-shapes
50
When the flexible elements

is bent or deformed as a
result of forces being
applied by a contact point
being displaced, then the
electrical resistance strain
gauges mounted on the
element are strained and so
give a resistance change
which can be monitored
The change in resistance is
thus a measure of the
displacement or
deformation of the flexible
element. Such

sensors Cont
51
Example.
Consider an electrical resistance
strain gauge with a resistance of
100 and gauge factor of 2.0.
What is the change in resistance
of the gauge when it is subjected
to a strainR
of0.001?
RG

sensors Cont
Capacitive element
sensor
The capacitance C of a parallel plate
capacitoris
given by
o r A
C
d
52
Where, r = relative permittivity dielectric

between plate
o = permittivity constant of free
space
A = Area overlap between the two
plates
D =plate separation distance

sensors Cont
Variable distance displacement sensor
Area
d
Fixed plate
For the displacement changing the plate

separation, if the separation d is increased by a
displacement x then the capacitance becomes
o r A
C C
dx
53

sensors Cont
Variable distance displacement sensor
Hence, the
change inC
Area
capacitance
d
as a fraction of
the initial
Fixed plate
C
d
x d
capacitance
is
C
dx
1 x d
given by
There is thus a non-linear relationship between the
change in capacitance C and the displacement x. this
non-linearity can be overcomed by using what termed as
a push-pull displacement sensor
54

sensors Cont
Push-pull displacement sensor
This has three plates with the upper pair
forming one capacitor and the lower pair form

another capacitor
The displacement moves the central plate
between the two other plates
When the central plate moving down, we thus
o r A
C1
have
dx
Capacitor, C
Capacitor, C
C2
55
o r A
dx

sensors Cont
Push-pull displacement sensor
When C1 is in the one arm of an a.c bridge
and C2 in the other, then the resulting outof balance voltage is proportional to x
Such a sensor is typically used for
monitoring displacements from a few
millimeters to hundreds of millimeters
Non-linearity and hysteresis errors are
about of full range
56

sensors Cont
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
A rod driving
the sliding
core
Secondary 1
Primary
Secondary 2
AC input
Signal out,
Vo
57

sensors Cont
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
A rod driving
the sliding
core
Secondary 1
Primary
Secondary 2
AC input
Signal out,
Vo
58
LVDT consists of
three coils
symmetrically spaced
along insulated tube
The central coil is
the primary coil and
other two are identical
secondary coils which
are connected in
series in such away
that their outputs
oppose each other
A magnetic core is

sensors Cont
Transformer (LVDT)
A rod driving
the sliding
core
Secondary 1
Primary
Secondary 2
AC input
Signal out,
Vo
59
When there is an
alternating voltage
input to the primary
coil, alternating
E.m.f are induced in
the secondary coils
With the magnetic
core central, the
amounts of
magnetic material
in each coil are the
same. Thus, the
E.m.f induced in
each coil are the

sensors Cont
Transformer (LVDT)
A rod driving
the sliding
core
Secondary 1
Primary
Secondary 2
AC input
Signal out,
Vo
60
However, when the

core is displaced from
the central position,
there is a great amount
of magnetic core in one
coil than the other

sensors Cont
Example more in secondary coil 2 than in coil 1, the
result is that greater e.m.f is induced in one coil than
the other. There is then a net output from the two
coils . The E.m.f induced in the two secondary coils 1
and 2 can be represented
by
and
V1 k1 sin t
k1 , k 2
V2 k 2 sin t
of
Where
and
depend on the degree
coupling between the primary and secondary coils
for particular core position. , is the phase
Vout V1 V2 k1 k 2 sin t
difference between the primary a.c voltage and
k1 k 2 V 0
secondary a.c voltages
out
61

sensors Cont
When the core is more in 1 than in 2, we
k1 have
k2
and
Vo k1 k 2 sin t
k1 k 2
when the core is more in 2 than in 1 we
have
,
kbeing
2
consequence of
less than
is that there is
a phase change of 180 in output when the core moves
more in 1 than more
2
Vfrom
k 2 kin
out k1 k 2 sin t
1 sin t
k1
the magnitude of the signal out voltage on either line
indicate the position of core

near the center of motion, the change in voltage is
proportional to the displacement
62

sensors Cont
phase sensitive demodulator, with low pass
filter is used to convert the output into a

D.C voltage which gives a unique value for
each displacement
63

sensors Cont
the circuit above can be used to produce a
64
voltage that is proportional to position

two diodes convert a.c wave to half d.c wave
the capacitor and resistor values can be
selected to act as a low pass filter
the final capacitor should be large enough to
smooth out the voltage ripple on the output

sensors Cont
LVDTs have operating ranges from about 2mm
to 400mm
LVDTs also have non-linearity errors of about
0.25%
LVDTs are widely used as a primary transducer for
monitoring displacements
The free end of the core may be spring loaded for
contact with the surface being monitored
65

sensors Cont
Optical encoder
A encoder is device that provides a digital output as a result
of a linear or angular displacement

The encoder contains an optical disc with fine window
etched into it.
The light from emitter passes through the openings in the
disc to detectors
As the encoder shaft is rotated the light beams are broken
When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by
the sensor with the number of pulses being proportional to
the angle through which the disc rotates
Thus the angular position of the disc, and hence the shaft
rotating it, can be determined by the number of pulses
produced from some datum position
66

sensors Cont
There are two fundamental types of

encoders
Incremental encoder
Absolute encoder
67

sensors Cont
Incremental encoder
An incremental encoder will output two pulses
that can be used to determine displacement.

Logic circuit or software is used to determine
the direction of rotation, and count pulses to
determine the displacement
Also velocity can be determined by measuring
the time between pulse
68

sensors Cont
Incremental encoder
LEDs
Light
Sensor
The inner track has just one hole and is used to

locate the home position of the disc
69
The other two tracks have a series of equally

spaced holes that go completely round the disc
but with the holes in the middle track offset
from the holes in the outer track by one-half
the width of a hole. This offset enables the

sensors Cont
The resolution is determined by the
number of slots on the disc, with 60 slots

360 60
occurring with 1 revolution then, since
1 6
revolution is a rotation of 360 , the
resolution is
0
70

sensors Cont
Absolute encoder
Absolute encoder measures the position of the
shaft for a single rotation. The same shaft angle

will produce the same reading
The output is normally binary code or grey code of
several digits, each number representing a
particular angular position
The rotating disc has three concentric circles of
slots and three sensors to detect the light pulses
The slots are arranged in such away that the
sequential output from the sensors is a number in
the binary code
Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12360tracks
71
1024
The number of bits in the binary number will be
0

sensors Cont
Absolute encoder
LEDs
Sensors
000
111
001
110
010
101
011
72
100

sensors Cont
Hall effect sensor
When a beam of charged particles
passes through magnetic field, force act

on the particles and the beam deflected
from its straight line path.
A current flowing in a conductor is like a
beam of moving charges and thus can
be deflected by a magnetic field.
This effect was discovered by Edwin Hall
in 1879 and is called the Hall Effect.
73

sensors Cont
Consider the fig below, Elections moving in a conductive plate
with magnetic field applied at right angles to the plane of the

plate.
Magnetic field
Positively
Charged
Negatively
Charged
Current
P.d produced by
deflection of
electrons
74
Current

sensors Cont
As a consequence of the magnetic field, the
moving electors are deflected to one side of the

plate and thus that side becomes negatively
charges while the opposite side becomes
positively charges since the electrons are
directed away from it.
This charge separation produces an electric
field in the material.
The charge separation continues until the forces
on the charges particles from the electric field
just balance the forces produced by the
magnetic field
75

sensors Cont
BI
V K Hgiven
The transverse potential difference
V
t
by
Where
B
= Magnetic flux density at the right
I
angles
to the plane
t
= the current through it
K
= the plane thickness
= a constant called the Hall
coefficient.
H
76

sensors Cont
There are two basic forms of Hall Effect
sensors
Linear Hall effect sensor
Where the output varies in a reasonably
linear manner with the magnetic Flux
density.
Output
(V)
77
Flux density

sensors Cont
Threshold Hall effect sensor
Where the output shows a sharp drop at a

particular magnetic flux density.
Output
(V)
Flux
density
78

sensors Cont
Advantages of Hall Effect sensor.
Being able operation as switches which can
be operates to 100
repetition rate.
Cost less than electromechanical switch
Hall Effect sensor is immune to
environmental contaminants and can be
used under severe service condition.
Such sensors can be used as position,
displacement and proximity sensor if the
object being sensed is fitted with a small
permanent magnet
79
KHz

sensors Cont
Advantages of Hall Effect sensor.
Ground
Supply
Output
Hall
sensor
Magnet
Float
80
As an illustration, such
sensor can be used to
determine the level of fuel
in an automobile fuel tank
A magnet is attached to a
float and as the level of
fuel changes so the float
distance from the Hall
sensor changes. The
result is a Hall voltage
output which is a
measure of distance of
the float from the sensor
VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSOR

Tachogenerator
Tachogenerator is used to measure angular
velocity,
One form of Tachogenerator is the variable
reluctance tachogenerator consists of a Toothed
wheel of ferromagnetic material which is
attached to the rotating shaft as fig below
shows.
Pick-up coil
Toothe wheel
81
Out
Pick-up coil
Toothe wheel
82
Out
A pick- up coil is wound an a

permanent magnet
As the wheel rotate, so the
teeth move past the coil and
the air gap between the coil
and the ferromagnetic
material changes, we have a
magnetic circuit with an air
gap which periodically
changes.
Thus the flux linked by pick
up coil changes.
The resulting cyclic change in
the flux linked produces an
alternating e.m. f in the coil.

If the wheel contains
teeth and rotates with

an angular velocity , then the flux change with
time is given by
cos nt
0
0
Where, a
Mean value o the flux

The amplitude of the flux
variation
d
d
o the
e
N
a cos nt
The induced e.m.f,
e
and
N turns of the
dt
dt
pick up coli is thus,
N a n sin nt
83

Let, the maximum value of the induced
E max
84
N a n
e.m.f.
to be
and is a measure of
angular velocity
e E max sin nt
Therefore,
Instead of using the maximum value of the
e.m.f as a measure of the angular, a pulse
shaping signal conditioner can be used to
transform the output in a sequence of
pulses which can be counted by a
counter ,the number counted in a particular
time internal being a measure of the
angular velocity.
LIQUID LEVEL
Liquid level in a vessel can be measured directly by
monitoring the position of the liquid surface or

indirectly by measuring some variable related to the
height.
Direct methods can involve floats; indirect methods
include the monitoring of the weight of the vessel by,
g liquid is
perhaps, load cells. The weightAh
ofthe
A Cross sectional area of the vessel,
h Height of liquid
Its density
g Acceleration due to gravity
Thus, changes in the height of liquid gives weight
changes.
85
LIQUID LEVEL
More commonly, indirect methods involve
the measurement of pressure at some point

in the liquid , the pressurehdue
to a column
g
of liquid of height h being
Where
86
the liquid density
LIQUID LEVEL
Direct method of
FLOATS
monitoring the
level of liquid in
a vessel is by
monitoring the
level of liquid in
a vessel is by
monitoring the
movement of a
float as fig.
belowtoillustrates
A simple float can be coupled
same
this with a
suitable displacement transducer
to
simple
float
produce an electrical signal
proportional
to
Potentiometer
Float
Liquid level
Liquid
Tank
87
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
Thermistors.
8
6
4
40
80
120 160
Temperature C
Thermistors are small pieces of
material made from mixture of

metal oxides, such as those of
chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel. These
are semiconductors.
The material is formed into
various forms of element such
as beads, discs and rods.
The resistance of conventional
metal-oxide thermistors
decreases in a very non-linear
manner with increase in
temperature, as illustrated in
fig y below.
Fig. y. Variation of resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor.

88
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistors.
Such thermistors having negative
temperature coefficients (NTC). Positive

temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors
are however available.
The change in resistance per degree change
in temperature is considerably larger than
t
that which occurs with metals.
Rt Ke
The resistance-temperature relationship
for
Where:
a thermistor can be described by an
of
the
form
Requation
The
resistance
at
temperature
t
t
K and
89
are constants
THERMISTORS
Like RTDs, thermistors (see Figure)
Figure . Different types of thermistors.

90
are
semiconductor
temperature
sensor that exhibit changes in
internal resistance proportional to
changes in temperature. Thermistors
are made from mixtures of metal
oxides, such as oxides of cobalt,
chromium, nickel, manganese, iron,
and titanium. These semiconductor
materials exhibit a temperatureversus-resistance behaviour that is
opposite of the behaviour of RTD
conducting
materials.
As
the
temperature
increases,
the
resistance of a thermistor decreases;
therefore, a thermistor is said to
have
a
negative
temperature
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistors.
Thermistors have many advantages
when compared with other
temperature Sensors.
They are nigged and can be very small, so
enabling temperatures to be monitored at
virtually point.
Because of their small size they respond
very rapidly to changes in temperature.
They give very large changes in resistance
per degree change in temperature.
91
Disadvantage
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermo diodes
A junction semiconductor diode is widely used as a temperature
sensor.
When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the
mobility of their charge carriers changes and this affects the rate
at which electrons and hole can diffuse across a p-n junction.
Thus when a p-n junction has a potential difference V across it, the
/ kT junction is a function of the temperature,
current I through
I I o e eVthe
being given by
Where: - T
is the temperature on the Kelvin scale
e = the change on electron
k and Io are constants
kT I
V
ln
1
I
e
Taking logarithms ,
Thus, for a constant current, we have V proportional to the
temperature on the Kelvin scale and so a measurement of the
potential difference across a diode at constant current can be used
as a measure of the temperature
o
92
Thermoelectric effect sensors

(thermocouples)
Fig 4: gas thermometer
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends
and one of the ends is heated, a continuous current flows in the
thermoelectric circuit. Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821.
This thermoelectric circuit is shown in Figure 4(a). If this circuit is broken
at the center, as shown in Figure 4(b), the new open circuit voltage
(known as the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the junction
temperature and the compositions of the two metals.
93

(thermocouples)
Thermoelectric
effect sensors rely on the

physical principle that, when any two different
metals are connected together, an e.m.f.,
which is a function of the temperature, is
generated at the junction between the metals.
The general form of this relationship is:
e = a1T+ a2T2 + a3T3 +.+anTn
(1)
Where, e = the e.m.f generated and

T = the absolute temperature.
94
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)

This is clearly non-linear, which is
inconvenient for measurement applications.

Fortunately, for certain pairs of materials,
the terms involving squared and higher
powers of T (a2T2, a3T3 etc.) are
approximately zero and the e.m.f.
temperature relationship is approximately
linear
Wires
ofaccording
such pairsto:of materials are connected
together ateone
and.(2)
in this form are known as
aend,
1T
thermocouples.
Thermocouples are a very important class of device

as they provide the most commonly used method of
95 measuring temperatures in industry.

(thermocouples)
Thermocouples are manufactured from
various combinations of
the base metals copper and iron,
the base-metal alloys of alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel
(Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni), nicrosil (Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil

(Ni/Si/Mn),
the noble metals platinum and tungsten, and
The noble-metal alloys of platinum/rhodium and
tungsten/rhenium.
96

(thermocouples)
Only
certain combinations of these are used as

thermocouples and each standard combination is
known by an internationally recognized type letter, for
instance type K is chromelalumel. The e.m.f.
temperature characteristics for some of these standard
thermocouples are shown in Figure 5: these show
reasonable linearity over at least part of their
temperature-measuring ranges.
97
Fig. 5. E.m.f. temperature characteristics for some standard thermocouple materials.

(thermocouples)
98

(thermocouples)
Thermoelectric
effect sensors rely on the

physical principle that, when any two different
metals are connected together, an e.m.f.,
which is a function of the temperature, is
generated at the junction between the metals.
The general form of this relationship is:
e = a1T+ a2T2 + a3T3 +.+anTn
(1)
Where, e = the e.m.f generated and
T = the absolute temperature.
99
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)

This is clearly non-linear, which is
inconvenient for measurement applications.

Fortunately, for certain pairs of materials,
the terms involving squared and higher
powers of T (a2T2, a3T3 etc.) are
approximately zero and the e.m.f.
temperature relationship is approximately
linear
Wires
ofaccording
such pairsto:of materials are connected
together ateone
and.(2)
in this form are known as
aend,
1T
thermocouples.
Thermocouples are a very important class of device

as they provide the most commonly used method of
100measuring temperatures in industry.
LIQUID FLOW
The traditional method of measuring the flow rate of
liquid involves devices based on the measurement

of pressure drop occurring when the fluid flows
through a constriction.
a
V1
The fluid velocity at point a

P1
The pressure at point a
A1
Cross section area of the tube prior to the
constriction
101
LIQUID FLOWV
The velocity at
P2 b
point
The pressure at
A2
point
b
The area of cross
section
at
point b
2
V1
P1 V22 P2
2 g Fluid
g 2 g density
g
Since the mass flow rate of the liquid through the tube prior to the
From
Bernoullis
A V A the
V tube at the
constriction must equal that passing through
AV A V
equations
constriction, WeQhave
a
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
However, the quantity

of liquid passing through the tube per
A2
2 P1 P2
Thus
the quantity of fluid following the pipe per second is
Qsecond
is 2
, hence
1 A2 A1
proportional to (Pressure different)
The measurements of the pressure difference can thus
be used to give a measure of the rate of flow.
There are many devices based on this principle, and the
following example of the Orifice plate is probably one of
102
the most common.
TURBINE METER
The turbine flowmeter (Figure ) consists
of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported

centrally in the pipe along which the
flow occurs.
The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid
flow, the angular velocity being
approximately proportional to the flow
rate.
The rate of revolution of the rotor can be
determined by attaching a small
permanent magnet to one of the blades
and using a pick-up coil.
An induced e.m.f pulse is produced in
the coil every time the magnet passes it.
The pulses are counted and so the
number of revolutions of the rotor can
be determined.
The meter is expensive, with an
accuracy of typically about 0.1%.

103
Light sensor
Photodio
de
Photodiode are semiconductor junction diodes which are
connected into a circuit in reverse bias, so giving a very

high resistance
When light falls on the junction the diode resistance drops
and the current in the circuit rises
Example, the current in the absence of light with a reverse
bias of 3V might be 25A and when illustrated by
2500lumens/m2 the current rises to 375A.
3 25 10 6 120k
The resistance
device with no light is
3 375 10 6 of
8kthe
and with light is

A photodiode can thus be used as a variable resistance
device controlled by the light incident on it
Photodiodes have a very fast response to light
104
Light sensor
Phototransis
tor
105
Have light-sensitive
collector-base p-n junction

When there is no incident
light, there is very small
collector-to-emitter current
When the light is incident,
a base current is produced
that is directly
proportional to the light
intensity
This leads to the
production of a collector
current which is then a
measure of the light
intensity
Light sensor
Photo resistor
Photo resistors has a resistance which
depends on the intensity of the light falling

on it
The cadmium sulphide photo resistor is most
responsive to light having wave lengths
shorter than about 515nm and the cadmium
selinide photo resistor for wavelengths less
than about 700nm
106
Selection of sensors
In selecting a sensor for a particular application
there are number of factors that need to be
considered
The nature of measurement required
The nature of the output required from the
107
sensor, this determining the signal

conditioning requirements in order to give
suitable output signals from the
measurement
Then possible sensors can be identified,
taking into account such factor as their
range, accuracy, linearity, speed of
response, reliability, maintainability, life
span, power supply requirements,
ruggedness, availability and cost
Questions
108

Lecture 1-General Introduction To Mechatronics

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General Introduction to

MODULE STRUCTURE Cont

MODULE STRUCTURE Cont

Actuators in Pneumatic and Hydraulics Systems

Pneumatic and hydraulics systems

MODULE STRUCTURE Cont

ELECTICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

MODULE STRUCTURE Cont

Fault detection techniques, common

Introduction, types and application of

End of Semester Examination

number of production processes that are all carried out automatically

have electrical sensors extracting information from the mechanical

basically refers to mechanical

Mechatronics is an amalgamation mechanics,

electronics and information technology intended

and human work force. In term of machines, mechatronics usually

Reduction of person accidents

Advantage of Mechatronics Cont

iii. Better product quality

reduces waste and reworks

leading to added economic advantages

manufacturing and processing industries variables such as temperature,

High investment cost: high cost of designing,

Vulnerability to downtime exists because of increasing

iii. More management attention

engineers who are able to work across the boundaries of

including consumer product design, instrumentation,

Sensors (Transducer) Cont

Transducer can be classified asPassive- where depend on additional of external power

point of view of electrical parameter involved, namely,

TERMINOLOGY AND PERFORMANCE

Span = max input min input

If a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25

ysteresis and Hysteresis error

Max Min. value given

output that occur over time

there is zero input

of input values for which there is no output.

of an input until the output begins to respond the change

Displacement, Position and Proximity

Displacement, Position and Proximity

Displacement sensors are concerned with the

measurement of amount by which some object has been

position of some object with reference to some reference

used to determine when an object has moved to within

Displacement, Position and Proximity

object comes in to mechanical contact with

contact between the measured object and

Displacement, Position and Proximity

Displacement, Position and Proximity

Consists of resistance element with

sliding contact which can be moved over

Displacement, Position and Proximity

With a constant input voltage

resistance R23 between terminal

Displacement, Position and Proximity

If the track has a constant resistance

The track resistance tends to range

Displacement, Position and Proximity

The potential difference across the

Displacement, Position and Proximity

The total resistance across the