PowerPoint Lecture Presentations for

Topic 1 Biological
Molecules

Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Learning Outcomes
Distinguish among monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Describe the formation and breakage of
glycosidic bond.
Compare storage polysaccharides (starch and
glycogen) with structural polysaccharides
(cellulose), and relate these structures to their
functions in living organisms.

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Learning Outcomes
Analyze and distinguish among triglyceride,
phospholipids, fats, and steroids, and describe
the structural composition, characteristics, and
biological functions of each.
Explain the meaning of the terms primary
structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure
and quaternary structure of proteins, and
describe the types of bonding which hold the
molecules in shape.

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Learning Outcomes
Describe the general structure of an amino acid
and the formation and breakage of peptide
bond.
Describe the components of a nucleotide and
identify their molecular structures.
Describe the structure and composition of
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and discuss the
importance of base pairing and hydrogen
bonding.
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Rearrange these in the

correct order:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Concept 4.1: Organic chemistry is the study of

carbon compounds
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds
that contain carbon
Organic compounds range from simple
molecules to colossal ones
Most organic compounds contain hydrogen
atoms in addition to carbon atoms

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overview: Carbon: The Backbone of

Life
Although cells are 7095% water, the rest
consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form
large, complex, and diverse molecules
Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other
molecules that distinguish living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Chemical Groups Most Important in the

Processes of Life
Functional groups are the components of
organic molecules that are most commonly
involved in chemical reactions
The number and arrangement of functional
groups give each molecule its unique
properties

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 The seven functional groups that are most

important in the chemistry of life:
Hydroxyl group
Carbonyl group
Carboxyl group
Amino group
Sulfhydryl group
Phosphate group
Methyl group
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overview: The Molecules of Life

All living things are made up of four classes of
large biological molecules: carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Within cells, small organic molecules are joined
together to form larger molecules
Macromolecules are large molecules
composed of thousands of covalently
connected atoms

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers,

built from monomers
A polymer is a long molecule consisting of
many similar building blocks
These small building-block molecules are
called monomers
Three of the four classes of lifes organic
molecules are polymers:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

A condensation reaction or more specifically
a dehydration reaction occurs when two
monomers bond together through the loss of a
water molecule
Enzymes are macromolecules that speed up
the dehydration process
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the
reverse of the dehydration reaction
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Dehydration

Short polymer

Monomer

Hydrolysis

Longer polymer

dehydration
synthesis

hydrolysis

Which diagram represents

Is water removed or added?

removed

Added

Are polymers or monomers

formed?

polymers

monomers

Critical Thinking Time

How many molecules of water are
needed to completely hydrolyze a
polymer that is ten monomers long?

CARBOHYDRATES

Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and

building material
Carbohydrates include sugars and the
polymers of sugars
The simplest carbohydrates are
monosaccharides, or single sugars
Carbohydrate macromolecules are
polysaccharides, polymers composed of many
sugar building blocks

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Carbonyl

Acetone, the simplest ketone

The carbonyl group ( CO)
consists of a carbon atom
joined to an oxygen atom by a
double bond.
Ketones if the carbonyl group
is within a carbon skeleton
Aldehydes if the carbonyl
group is at the end of the
carbon skeleton

Propanal, an aldehyde

Sugars
Monosaccharides have molecular formulas
that are usually multiples of CH2O
Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common
monosaccharide
Monosaccharides are classified by
The location of the carbonyl group (as aldose
or ketose)
The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-3

Aldoses

Trioses (C3H6O3)

Pentoses (C5H10O5)

Hexoses (C6H12O6)

Glyceraldehyde

Ribose

Ketoses

Glucose

Galactose

Dihydroxyacetone

Ribulose
Fructose

Fig. 5-3a

Aldoses

Trioses (C3H6O3)

Hexoses (C6H12O6)

Pentoses (C5H10O5)

Glyceraldehyde

Ribose
Glucose

What type of molecules are these?

How many carbons per molecule?

Galactose

Fig. 5-3b

Ketoses

Trioses (C3H6O3)

Pentoses (C5H10O5)

Hexoses (C6H12O6)

Dihydroxyacetone

Ribulose
Fructose

How are these molecules different from aldoses?

 Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in

aqueous solutions many sugars form rings
Monosaccharides serve as a major fuel for
cells and as raw material for building molecules

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-4a

(a) Linear and ring forms

Only sugars in solution which exist in linear form
are able to reduce other molecules because of
free aldehyde group
Circle the free aldehyde groups in diagram.

Fig. 5-4b

(b) Abbreviated ring structure

2. What are the components of:

a) Sucrose

glucose + fructose
b) Lactose

glucose + galactose
c) Maltose

glucose + glucose

 A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration

reaction joins two monosaccharides
This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage
The components of:
a) Sucrose
glucose + fructose
b) Lactose
glucose + galactose
c) Maltose
glucose + glucose

 Which is a
Monosaccharide?
Disaccharide?

What is the name of the bond formed between

monomers?

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-5

14
glycosidic
linkage

Glucose

Glucose

Maltose

(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose

12
glycosidic
linkage

Glucose

Fructose

(b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose

Sucrose

Got Lactose?
Most of the worlds population cannot
digest milk-based foods
They are lactose intolerant, because
they lack the enzyme lactase
This illustrates the importance of
biological molecules, such as lactase,
to functioning living organisms

Why is sucrose non-reducing?

Is there any free
aldehyde or keto
group in the
sucrose diagram?

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Why is maltose reducing?

Is there any free
aldehyde or keto
group in the
maltose diagram?

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars,
have storage and structural roles
The structure and function of a polysaccharide
are determined by its sugar monomers and the
positions of glycosidic linkages

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-7a

Glucose
(a) and glucose ring structures

Glucose

What is the difference between and glucose ring

structures?
When the hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to
carbon 1 is on the same side of the plane of
the ring as the hydroxymethyl (-CH2OH) group,
the glucose is designated glucose
When (-OH) group is on the other side of the
plane as the (-CH2OH) group, the glucose is
designated glucose

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Polymers with glucose are helical

Polymers with glucose are straight
In straight structures, H atoms on one
strand can bond with OH groups on other
strands
Parallel cellulose molecules held together
this way are grouped into microfibrils, which
form strong building materials for plants
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Storage Polysaccharides (alpha glucose)

Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants,
consists entirely of glucose monomers
Plants store surplus starch as granules within
chloroplasts and other plastids

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in

animals
Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen
mainly in liver and muscle cells

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-6

Chloroplast

Mitochondria Glycogen granules

Starch

0.5 m
1 m

Glycogen

Amylose
Amylopectin

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

(b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

What shapes do these polymers have?

 What type of linkage branching do starch &

glycogen share in common?
Raven

Which is more branched?

Structural Polysaccharides (beta glucose)

The polysaccharide cellulose is a major
component of the tough wall of plant cells
Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose,
but the glycosidic linkages differ
The difference is based on two ring forms for
glucose: alpha () and beta ()

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-8

Cell walls

Cellulose
microfibrils
in a plant
cell wall
Microfibril

10 m

0.5 m

What shape does cellulose have?

Cellulose
molecules

b Glucose
monomer

Fig. 5-7bc

(b) Starch: 14 linkage of glucose monomers

Why are the glycosidic bonds called: ? 1, 4?

(c) Cellulose: 14 linkage of glucose monomers

Why are the glycosidic bonds called: ? 1, 4?

 Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing

linkages cant hydrolyze linkages in cellulose
Cellulose in human food passes through the
digestive tract as insoluble fiber
Some microbes use enzymes to digest
cellulose
Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have
symbiotic relationships with these microbes
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-9

 Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is

found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
Chitin also provides structural support for the
cell walls of many fungi

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-10

(a) The structure

of the chitin
monomer.

(b) Chitin forms the

exoskeleton of
arthropods.

(c) Chitin is used to make

a strong and flexible
surgical thread.