Learning outcomes

To explain the significance of the Nyquist criterion

To be able to sketch a simple Nyquist plot
To determine stability using the Nyquist criterion
To understand the limits of the Nyquist plot
To utilize bode plots in determining stability, gain
margin, and phase margin
To cover the relation of closed-loop transients to
the closed-loop frequency response

Introduction to Nyquist
Criterion

Basic Idea of Nyquist Criterion

We use the system in open loop to
determine the closed loop stability.
The Nyquist criterion relates the stability of
a closed loop system to the open-loop
frequency response and open loop pole
location

Nyquist Criterion Derivation

 The numerator is the same with the closed

loop poles and the denominator is the
same with the open loop poles.

Contour Mapping
The basic idea of contour mapping is that one
has a transfer function with an input on the splane and can be a contour which is a set of
points that makes a loop and has a specific
direction.
If we take a complex number on the s-plane and
substitute into a function F(s), another complex
number results. e.g. substituting s = 4 + j3 into
F(s) = s2 + 2s + 1 yields 16 + j30.
You can put that contour into a function and you
will get an output which is also a contour that is

 The function can be written as a set of

zeroes and poles.

We are going to se contour mapping and

look how contour will change based on the
position and number of poles and zeroes.

# of encircled poles or
zeroes
Z=P

Encirclements of origin

None

Z>P

Same direction (clockwise)

Opposite direction (counter clockwise)

Z<P

 Because stable systems have T(s) with

poles only in the left half-plane, we apply
the concept of contour to use the entire
right half-plane as contour A, as shown in
the Figure below.

Contour enclosing right half plane to determine stabil

We try to construct contour B via

F(s) = G(s)H(s)
which is the same as that of 1 + G(s)H(s), except that
it is shifted to the right by (1,j0). The mapping is
called the Nyquist diagram of G(s)H(s).
Assuming that A starts from origin, A is a path
traveling up the j axis, from j0 to j, then a
semicircular arc, with radius , followed by a path
traveling up the j axis, from j to origin. So
substituting s = j, with changing from 0 to , we

 Each zero or pole of 1 + G(s)H(s) that is inside contour

A (the right half-plane), yields a rotation around (1,
j0) (clockwise for zero and counterclockwise for pole)
for the resultant Nyquist diagram. The total number of
counterclockwise revolution, N, around (1, j0) is N =
P Z, where P is the number of open loop poles, and
Z is the number of closed loop poles.
Thus we determine that that the number of closed
loop poles, Z, in the right half-plane equals the
number of open-loop poles, P, that are in the right
half-plane minus the number of counterclockwise
revolution, N, around 1 of the mapping, i.e. Z = P
N.

Sketching the nyquist

diagram

Assume a transfer function GH(s)

 Transform the transfer function TF =

GH(s)
frequency domain GH(l)t
obtain its modulus R and argument
where is the input frequency

Modulus and argument

 Calculate the modulus and argument of GH(l) for various

values of frequencies

 Sketch the previous

modulus against its
argument

 Obtain the
conjugate plot

Stability via the

Nyquist Diagram

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

We can determine the stability of a system using this
simple equation:

Z=PN
Where P = number of open-loop poles of G(s)H(s)
located at the right hand plane,
N = number of counter-clockwise revolutions the
diagram makes around -1,
and Z = number of closed-loop poles located at the
right hand plane

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

We can determine the stability of a system using this simple equation:

Z=PN
Where P = number of open-loop poles of G(s)H(s) located at the right hand
plane,
N = number of counter-clockwise revolutions the diagram makes around
-1,
and Z = number of closed-loop poles located at the right hand plane
A value of Z = 0 indicates that the system is stable
If the open-loop system contains a variable gain, K, set K = 1 and sketch
the Nyquist diagram. Consider the critical point to be at -1/K rather than at
- 1 . Adjust the value of K to yield stability, based upon the Nyquist criterion

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Consider the system

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Consider the system

Taking G(s)H(s),

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

No open loop poles located at RHP

P=0

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Determine the value of N,
the number of loops the
diagram makes around -1

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

No revolutions around -1,
N=0

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

No revolutions around -1,
N=0

Z=P-N

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

No revolutions around -1,
N=0

Z=0-0

Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

No revolutions around -1,
N=0

Z=0
The system is stable.

Phase and Gain

margins

Gain margin

STABILITY

Phase margin

STABILITY

CONTROL SYSTEMS
10.7 Stability, Gain Margin and Phase Margin via bode plots

Definition of terms
Bode Plot - consists of two graphs: one is a plot of the
logarithm of the magnitude of a transfer function, the
other is a plot of the phase angle and both are plotted
against frequency.
Gain Margin found by using the phase plot to find the
frequency. The amount ofgainincrease or decrease
required to make the loopgainunity at the frequency
Wgm where the phase angle is 180 degrees
Phase Margin Is found by using the magnitude curve
to find the frequency, where the gain is 0dB. On the
phase curve at that frequency, the phase margin is the
difference between the phase of the response and
180 when the loop gain is 1.0

Sketching the bode plot

Turn all poles into 1

Identify the behavior of the slope
Change in slope

Terms

Slope

Change in slope

T1 = K = 40

T2 =

-20

T1 + T2 = 0 20 = -20

T3 =

-20

T2 + T3 = -20 -20 = -40

T4 =

-20

T3 + T4 = -40 20 = -60

Bode plot

Relation Between ClosedLoop Transient and ClosedLoop Frequency Responses

Damping Ratio and Closed-Loop

Frequency Response

In this section, we will show that a

relationship exists between a system's
transient response and its closed-loop
frequency
response.
We
derived
relationships
between
the
closed-loop
transient response and the poles of the
closed-loop transfer function,

We now derive relationships between the

transient response and characteristics of its
frequency response. We define these
characteristics and relate them to damping ratio,
natural frequency, settling time, peak time, and
rise time.

Let us now find the frequency response of

Eq. 1, define characteristics of this
response, and relate these characteristics to
the transient response. Substituting s=j
into Eq. 1, we evaluate the magnitude of the
closed-loop frequency response as Eq. 2:

A representative sketch of the log plot of Eq. 2 is

shown in the next slide. We now show that a
relationship exists between the peak value of the
closed loop magnitude response and the damping
ratio. Squaring Eq. 2, differentiating with respect
to ^2, and setting the derivative equal to zero
yields the maximum value of M, Mp, where

at a frequency, p, of

 Since is related to percent overshoot, we

can plot Mp vs. percent overshoot. The
result is shown in the next graph.
The previous equation shows that the
maximum magnitude on the frequency
response curve is directly related to the
damping ratio and, hence, the percent
overshoot.

 Also notice that the peak frequency, p, is

not the natural frequency. However, for low
values of damping ratio, we can assume
that the peak occurs at the natural
frequency.
Finally, notice that there will not be a peak
at frequencies above zero if > 0.707. This
limiting value of for peaking on the
magnitude response curve should not be
confused with overshoot on the step

Response Speed and Closed-Loop

Frequency Response
Another relationship between the frequency
response and time response is between the
speed of the time response (as measured by
settling time, peak time, and rise time) and the
bandwidth of the closed-loop frequency response,
which is defined here as the frequency, G>BW>
at which the magnitude response curve is 3 dB
down from its value at zero frequency

The bandwidth of a two-pole system can be

found by finding that frequency for which M
= 1/sqrt(2) (that is, -3 dB) in Eq.3 The result
is

To relate to BW to settling time, we

substitute n = 4/Ts into Eq. 3 and obtain:

Similarly, since, n = /[Tp sqrt( 1 ^2)],