AdvComms - Presentation (REVISED)

1
Navigation Aids
[Air/Aero Aircraft]
August 01,
2015
Presented by:
Group 1
Copyright Information goes here
Advanced
Company Proprietary and Confidential
Definition of Terms
o Navigation is the art of directing the movements of a
craft from one point to another along a desired path
o Navigation Aids any device external to a vessel or
aircraft intended to assist a navigator to determine his
position or safe course or to warn him from danger or
obstruction to navigation
o Aviation the art or science of flying aircraft
o Avionics a term used to describe the electronic
equipment found in the modern aircraft
To navigate, a pilot needs to know the

following:
Starting point (Point of Departure)
Ending Point (Final Destination)
Direction of travel
Distance to travel
Aircraft speed
Aircraft fuel capacity
Aircraft weight and balance information
Introductio
Aids
NAvigation
On
Aviation
For the aircrafts to be able

to follow their scheduled route
without
deviations
and
incidents such as loss of
separation, or in a worst case
scenario, collisions, there are
numerous systems permitting
the positioning of aircraft.
thE
Evolution
of
Airway Lights
an
Electronic
d
Navigation
7
o In 1919 - U.S. Army Air Service Lieutenant
Donald Bruner began using bonfires and the
first artificial beacons to help with night
navigation.
o On July 1, 1924 - Postal authorities began
regularly scheduled night operations over parts
of this route.
o In 1926 Pilots could only receive weather
information and details about other planes in
the air just before takeoff. (Demands 2-way voice
communication)
o On the next April It had an experimental

The earliest
lighting consisted
both of rotating
beacons and fixed
course lights.
They were
mounted atop 51foot towers.
Salt Lake City

Air Mail Radio
Station,
March 1925
10
o In October 1928 The Aeronautics Branch

also began sending voice information to help
pilots navigate. (radiotelegraphy)
o In 1928 the Bureau of Standards also
developed a radio navigation beacon system.
o In 1929 the Aeronautics Branch standardized
a four-course radio range.
11
o In September 1929 Army Lt. James Doolittle

became the first pilot to use only aircraft
instrument guidance to takeoff, fly a set course,
and land. (He used 4-course radio range and radio marker
beacons, altimeter, and a directional gyroscope which became
the basis for many future developments in navigation.)
o In 1932 The Aeronautics Branch began formal

flight inspection of airway navigation aids.
o September
1935
Marked
the
first
simultaneous transmission by radiotelephone of
voice and weather info and radio beacon signals
Radiotelepho
ne
12
13
o In May 1941 The Civil Aeronautics

Administration (CAA) opened its first UHF radio
range system for scheduled airline navigation.
o In 1944 The CAA began testing a static-free,
VHF omnidirectional radio range that allowed
pilots to navigate by watching a dial on their
instrument panel. (watchig>listening)
o In June 1948 The CAA installed the first high
powered, low frequency, long range navigation
facility on mainly to aid ocean flights.
14
The perfection of the Very-High-Frequency

Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR) airways made
the four-course radio range obsolete. It was
15
o By the middle of 1952 The CAA began to

shut down the low and medium frequency four
course radio ranges.
o In 1961 The FAA began using the distance
measuring equipment on its entire system. (w/
known checkpoints)
In March 1967 The FAA participated with the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
in the first public demonstration of a new system
that would use orbiting satellites to transmit
navigation data from aircraft to ground stations.
16
o In 1973 The last airway light beacon from the

system begun in the 1920 was shut down.
o By the middle of 1982 The first of the 950
new radio navigation aids equipped with solidstated construction and advanced features was
installed. (overall improvements through out 1980s)
*Additional navigation technologies are in partial use
or
development,
including
the
Global Positioning Systemboth to locate and help
control aircraft by satellite, the Future Air Navigation
17
18
Instrument Panels
19
Flight instrumentsare the

instruments in the cockpit of an
aircraft that provide the pilot with
information about the flight
situation of that aircraft, such
asaltitude,airspeedand
direction.
20
21
Common Flight Instruments
Altimeter
The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above
sea-level
Altitude Indicator
The attitude indicator (also known as anartificial

horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon
Airspeed Indicator
The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed
relative to the surrounding air
Magnetic Compass
The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative
to magnetic north
22
Common Flight Instruments
Heading Indicator
Also known as Gyrocompass displays the aircrafts
heading with respect to magnetic north
Virtual Speed Indicator

Sometimes called Variometer, senses changing air
pressure and displays that info to the pilot as a
rate of climb
Course Deviation Indicator

The CDI is an avionics instrument used to
determine an aircrafts lateral position in
Magnetic
Indicator
relationRadio
to a track
provided
by VOR or ILS
It is generally coupled to an ADF w/c provided

bearing for a tuned non-directional beacon. Allows
position fixing using 1 instrument.
23
Center console
24
It is a bench with panels that display

information and present controls used by an
operator or group of operators to act on
objects or processes and their qualitative or
quantitative characteristics
25
Antenna Locations
26
VHF
Omnidirection
al
Range
27
[ VOR ]
28
VOR
VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE
is a type of short-rangeradio navigationsystem
foraircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to
determine their position and stay on course by
receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of
fixed groundradio beacons. It uses frequencies in
thevery high frequency(VHF) band from 108 to
117.95MHz(50 khz separation each channel).
29
VOR GROUND STATION

Vor Ground Station
30
o The ground equipment consists of a VOR

ground station, which is a small, low building
topped with a flat white disc, upon which are
located the VOR antennas and a fiberglass
cone-shaped tower.
o The station includes an automatic monitoring
system. The monitor automatically turns off
defective equipment and turns on the
standby transmitter. Generally, the accuracy
31
3 Classes of VOR Ground Statio

Terminal usable up to 25NM
LVOR- reliable up to 40 NM
HVOR- reception range of 40NM to
130NM
32
3 types of VOR Navigational

Station
VOR
VORTAC
VOR-DME
33
VOR SIGNAL
o Reference Signal
o Variable Signal
Two signals are transmitted from the ground station (above),
the first is thenon-directional reference phase, and the
second is therotating variable phase. Both signals are
transmitted 30 times per second. The variable phase transmits
cyclically around the 360 degrees of the azimuth approximately
30 times per second. The reference phase signal is
transmittedevery time the variable phase transmission sweeps
past magnetic north.
34
35
Antenna
36
To receive VOR VHF waves,

generally
a
V
shaped,
horizontally polarized, bi-polo
antenna is used.
A typical location for the V
dipole is in the Vertical Fin.
37
Receiver
[ NAV Radio / Receiver ]
38
o When
VOR
receiver
and
VHF
transceiver located together, the radio
is called a NAVCOM. The VOR signals
are received on the antenna, normally
located on the vertical stabilizer or on
top of the fuselage. The VOR receiver
converts signals from the antenna to
the
readings
displayed
on
the
navigation indicator.
39
o Before using a VOR, the instrument

must be tuned and identified; to
confirm the identity of the VOR, the
indent function is turned on (much
like a VHF radio) and the VOR
identifier (three letters) is transmitted
in Morse Code, which the pilot can
read from his chart.
40
VOR
Indicator
41
42
o Omnibearing Selector (OBS).The desired course is selected
by turning the OBS knob until the course is aligned with the
course index mark or displayed in the course window.
o Course deviation indicator (CDI).The deviation indicator is
composed of an instrument face and a needle hinged to move
laterally across the instrument face. The needle centers when the aircraft is on the
selected radial or its reciprocal. Full needle deflection from the center position to either side of the dial
indicates the aircraft is 10or more off course, assuming normal needle sensitivity. The outer edge of the
center circle is 2 off course; each dot signifies another 2.
o TO/FROM indicator.The TO/FROM indicator shows whether the

selected course will take the aircraft TO or FROM the station. It
doesnotindicate whether the aircraft isheadingto or from the
station.
o Flags, or other signal strength indicators.The device that
indicates a usable or an unreliable signal may be an OFF flag.
It retracts from view when signal strength is sufficient for
Types of VOR Indicator
43
CDI
RMI
HSI
RNAV
HSI
o
44
is an aircraft instrument normally mounted

below the artificial horizon in place of a
conventional heading indicator. It combines a
heading indicator with a VOR/ILS display
RMI
o
45
features a course arrow superimposed on

a rotating card which shows the aircraft's
current heading at the top of the dial. The
"tail" of the course arrow points at the
current radial from the station, and the
"head" of the arrow points at the reciprocal
(180 different) course to the station.
RNAV
o
46
is an onboard computer, with display, and

may include an up-to-date navigation
database. At least one VOR/DME station is
required, for the computer to plot aircraft
position on a moving map, or display course
deviation and distance relative to a waypoint
(virtual VOR station).
VOR TEST FACILITY (VOT)
47
A VOT differs from a VOR in that it replaces the variable

directional signal with another omnidirectional signal, in a
sense transmitting a 360 radial in all directions. The NAV
receiver is tuned to the VOT frequency, then the OBS is
rotated until the needle is centered. If the indicator reads
within four degrees of 000 with the FROM flag visible or
180 with the TO flag visible, it is considered usable for
navigation.
Common function of VOR
48
Bracketing
Tracking
Time Check
(TIME IN SECONDS BETWEEN RADIAL
CHANGE)/(DEGREES OF RADIAL
CHANGE) equals TIME TO STATION IN
49
VOR vs.
ADF
ADF
50
ADF operates on low frequencies200 KHz to 1750 KHz

which means commercial AM station broadcasts can be
used, as well as navigation facilities. The transmission
source most commonly used during IFR flight is the Nondirectional Beacon (NDB).
NDB- NDB signals follow the curvature of the Earth, so
they can be received at much greater distances at lower
altitudes, a major advantage over VOR. However, NDB
signals are also affected more by atmospheric conditions,
mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and electrical
storms, particularly at long range.
51
The good news and bad news of

ADF
AM transmitters are simple, relatively cheap and easy to
maintain, and they still form a major part of the aerial
navigation system in some areas of the world.
Furthermore, they broadcast a signal that follows the
earth's contours. Unlike the line-of-sight VOR, a powerful
AM transmitter can often transmit a signal to the opposite
side of a mountain range. That's the good news.
The bad news is that the signals in this band are subject to
all sorts of bending and distortion, particularly in bad
weather when you need them the most. Some older ADFs
VOR Testing Facility [VOT]
52
o A VOT is a low-power Omni station located on many

of the mid-to-large size airports. A VOT differs from a
standard Omni in that it transmits only a single
radial, the 360 radial.
o To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT frequency on
your VOR receiver. With the Course Deviation
Indicator (CDI) centered, the omni-bearing selector
should read 0 degrees with the to/from indication
showing "from" or the omni-bearing selector should
read 180 degrees with the to/from indication showing
"to." Two means of identification are used. One is a
series of dots and the other is a continuous tone.
53
Hyperboli
c
SYSTE
NAVIGATI
MS
ON
VOR Testing Facility [VOT]
54
o A VOT is a low-power Omni station located on many

of the mid-to-large size airports. A VOT differs from a
standard Omni in that it transmits only a single
radial, the 360 radial.
o To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT frequency on
your VOR receiver. With the Course Deviation
Indicator (CDI) centered, the omni-bearing selector
should read 0 degrees with the to/from indication
showing "from" or the omni-bearing selector should
read 180 degrees with the to/from indication showing
"to." Two means of identification are used. One is a
series of dots and the other is a continuous tone.
55
Long Range Navigational Aid

ORAN)
Developed during World War II

Ranges up to 800 to 1000 miles
56
One station is referred to as the

Master and the others as Slaves
57
LORAN C
Chains
58
A group consisting of a Master and

up to four slaves is called a chain
Each chain is identified by a Group
Repetition Rate (GRI) which is the
time between transmissions from the
59
o Each slave transmits its pulse train at a

specified interval after the master has
transmitted.
o This is called the emission delay (ED)
and is made up of the master-slave
time (MS) and a coding delay (CD).
60
LORAN C
Transmitters
61
o Due to the long distances covered by

each LORAN C chain, the power
transmitted must be high (0.5 to 4
MW).
o Propagation is by ground wave and
thus has to be vertically polarized.
o Antenna therefore is a vertical mast
(ideally a quarter wavelength long
(3km) (10,000ft))
62
LORAN C
Antennas
63
o Antennas
are
typically
about
400m high
o To
improve the
current flow, many
are top loaded
o They are still not
very
efficient
(~10%)
64
LORAN C
Coverage
65
66
Distance
Measure
Equipmen
[ DME ]
t
67
68
69
70
71
Transponder
72
INTERROGATION: 1025 -1150 MHz at 1 MHz increment for 126

Channels
REPLY: 962 1213 MHz @ 1 MHz increment @ 63 MHz below from
73
Navigati
Tactical Air
[ TACAN ]
on
74
o This is the US Military's version of

VOR/DME. Using a UHF transmitter and
a special TACAN receiver
o TACAN radios can receive ONLY TACAN
stations or DME information from a
VOR/DME station.
o No VOR information can be received on
a TACAN radio due to the use of UHF
instead of VHF.
o The TACAN signal consists of 2700
pulse-pairs/second whose amplitude is
modulated by a 15Hz signal and a 135
Hz signal
o
75
TACAN provides the following information:
Bearing
Course Deviation
To/From
Distance
Beacon Identification Tone
Reliability
76
Typical Specifications of a TACAN system
Frequency range: 962 to 1213 MHz

Low band(channels 1 to 63):
1025 to 1087 MHz(transmit frequency), 962 to 1024
MHz(receive frequency)
High band(channels 64 to 126):
1088 to 1150 MHz transmit frequency, 1151 to 1213
MHz receive frequency
Operating range:
Approximately 100- 300 miles
195 nautical miles with height of 40000 feet
System Operation
77
All controls is necessary for operation of the system

are on the Control Panel. There are two modes of
operation are available: REC (receive) and T/R
(transmit/receive). When REC operation is selected,
the receiver circuits of the TR units are energized, and
the system provides bearing information. The bearing
signals, transmitted by the beacon station, consist of
four modulated components: two 15 Hz signals and
two 135 Hz signals. And the bearing information is
displayed on Bearing-Distance-Heading Indicators
(BDHI).
System Operation
78
When the T/R mode is selected, both

receiver and transmitter circuits are
energized and the system provides
bearing and distance information. The
bearing and distance information is
displayed on the HSI.
GROUND BEACON ANTENNA
79
Plan View
Perspective
80
o Ground beacon antenna is the heart of

any omnidirectional range.
o Physical dimensions of an antenna
depends on its operation radio frequency
or wavelength.
81

The ground beacon station is a pulsed
transmitter-receiver system. Approximately 3,
600 paired pulses per second are transmitted.
Approximately 25 percent of these pulse-pairs
are used as reference bearing signals. The
remaining pulses are interrogation replies
pulse- per- second and noise pulse- persecond.
The transmitter is capable of responding to
interrogations from as many as 120 airborne
82
The ground beacon station antenna has

four major parts:
o a center element
o an inner fiberglass cylinder
o an outer fiberglass cylinder
o a pulser plate
83
The center element is excited by the RF

energy from the transmitter. Around the
element is the inner fiberglass cylinder and has
a conductive wire embedded in the fiberglass.
This wire acts as a reflector to distort the
normal radiation pattern into cardioid. The
signal received by the airborne system will vary
in amplitude at a 15 Hz rate (15rps). The outer
cylinder with nine vertical conductive wires
embedded in the fiberglass.
84
85
86
87
VH
Omnidirecti
&
F
Range
onal
88
Naviga
Tactical Air
[ VORTAC
tion]
89
o When a TACAN is co-located with a

VOR, it is known as a VORTAC.
o VORTAC provides both the bearing
and distance information of the
Aircraft.VORTAC is considered to be a
unified navigational aid.
o You can't use the TACAN for bearing
information, but it sends out a DME
signal that you can use for distance
information.
90
91
92
s to Approaching and Landing

o Instrument Landing System (ILS)
o VASI and PAPI
o Ground Proximity Warning System
(GPWS)
Instrument
System
Landing
[ Ils
93
Introduction
94
Main Components:
Guidance
Information:
- Localizer
- Glide slope
Range Information:
Outer Marker (OM)
Beacon
Middle Marker (MM)
Beacon
Inner Marker (IM)
Beacon
LOCALIZER
95
One of the main

components of
the ILS system is
the localizer
which handles
the guidance in
the
HORIZONTAL
plane
96
97
Localizer
The transmitted signal
GLIDE SLOPE
98
The glide
slope, or angle
of the descent
plane provides
the VERTICAL
guidance for
the pilot during
an approach.
99
e
p
o
l
S
e
d
i
Gl
Glide Slope
100
Marker Beacons
101
Marker beacons are used to alert the pilot that an

action (e.g., altitude check) is needed. This
information is presented to the pilot by audio and
visual cues.
The marker beacons are located at specified
intervals along the ILS approach and are identified
by discrete audio and visual characteristics. All
marker beacons operate on a frequency of 75 MHz
Marker Beacons
102
Indications a pilot receives when passing over a marker beacon.

MARKER
CODE
LIGHT
SOUND
OM
___
BLUE
400 Hz
Only dashes
MM
._._._
AMBER
1300 Hz
Alternate dot and dash
IM
....
WHITE
3000 Hz
only dots
103
104
Visual Approach Slope Indicator
&
Precision Approach Path

Indicator
[ VASI and PAPI ]
105
Visual Approach Slope

[ VASI ]
Indicator
106
The VASI designed to give visual indicators of the

desired approach slope.
107

108

109
Precision Approach Path

[ PAPI ]
Indicator
The PAPI System comprises a four unit wing 110

bar
located in a line at right angles to the runway. The
normal difference between the setting angles is 20
minutes of arc.

bar
minutes of arc.

bar
minutes of arc.
113
114
115
Ground
Warning
Proximity
System
[ GPWS ]
Ground Proximity Warning System
116
alerts the flight of the existence of

unsafe condition due to terrain proximity.
gives the crew visual and voice warnings
when the aircraft's flight path and
position, with respect to the terrain, need
immediate attention.
117
Excessive Sink Rate
computer compares descent speed and

radio
when the descent speed is too high, GPWS
light flash and the voice warning is SINK
RATE or PULL UP
118
Excessive Closure Rate
computer measure how fast the radio

altitude decrease
when the terrain closure is too high for a
certain radio altitude, the GPWS lights and
the voice warning is TERRAIN, TERRAIN,
PULLUP.
Excessive Altitude Loss
119
computer measures how much altitude the

aircraft losses when the aircraft descend
after take-off.
when the altitude loss is too high, the GPWS
lights flash and the voice warning is DON'T
SINK.
120
Too Low Terrain
computer looks at aircraft's altitude and

speed.
when the airspeed is high and the altitude
below 1000 ft., the GPWS lights flash and
the voice message is TOO LOW, TERRAIN.
Too Low Gear
121
when the airspeed is below a certain value

and the altitude is below 500ft., the
computer monitors if the landing gear is
down.
if not, GPWS lights flash and the warning is
TOO LOW, GEAR.
122
Too Low Flaps
when the landing gear is down and the

altitude is below 200ft., the computer
monitors if the flaps are down.
if not, GPWS lights flaps and the voice
warning is TOO LOW, FLAPS.
Below Glide Slope
123
below 1000ft. and during ILS approach, the

computer measures if the aircraft is not too
much under the glide slope.
when the aircraft is, the GPWS lights flash
and the voice message is GLIDESLOPE.
124
Global
System
Positioning
[ GPS ]
125
Global Positioning System (GPS) is

a
space-basedsatellite
navigationsystem that provides
location and time information in
all weather conditions, anywhere
on or near the earth where there
is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites.
126
This system consists of three

segments:
o The space segment,
o The control segment, and
o The user segment.
127
Transpond
er
128
A transponder (XPDR) is a
receiver/transmitter which will generate a
reply signal upon proper interrogation; the
interrogation and reply being on different
frequencies.
129
Emergency Locator
Transmitter (ELT)
130
The Emergency Locator Transmitter

(ELT) is a device which send a
message in case of aircraft crash.
That message contains info about
aircraft model, owner and
approximate coordinates of the
crashed plane, and it is made to
request SAR (Search and Rescue)
Two Basic Ways to Work
131
Crash:The ELT will be activated automatically when hitting

ground
Pilot Request: In case of emergency, the pilot may press
the "armed" button in the remote control to send a
emergency declaration message. In both ways, the device
will send a message containing relevant information:
Aircraft model, Call sign, GPS Coordinates, SAR service
request
Example:"ELT AutoMessage: Cessna 337G Skymaster
FG-337 CRASHED AT -32*56 41.3S LAT -71*28 16.3W
LON, REQUESTING SAR SERVICE"
132
Radio Altimeter
133
A radio altimeter is an airborne

electronic device capable of
measuring the height of the aircraft
above terrain immediately below the
aircraft.
134
135
136
137
Weather Radar
138
Airborne weather radar is a type of

radar used to provide an indication to
pilots of the intensity of convective
weather. Modern weather radars are
mostly Doppler radars, capable of
detecting the motion of rain droplets
in addition to intensity of the
precipitation.
139
140
141
142
Communic
ations
n
n
e
t
An
as
Communication
inAntennas
operation, and has a few problem
143
o Are basics
except from delamination
o Each communication transmitter has its own
antenna, mostly for redundancy and a couple of
technical issue
o Antenna can be mounted on either top or bottom
of the aircraft, but each installation is vulnerable to
shadowing from the fuselage
o Shadowing is caused by structure, such as fins or
gear door, in the transmitting path of the antenna
144
Loran Antenna
145
o Similar in size to the com antenna and

sometimes exact in shape, but different inside.
o Modern loran antennas have an amplifier built
into the base to boost signal, while older
system use a small amplifier mounted just
inside the skin.
o Can be either on top or bottom mounted, but
the receiver must be configure for the antenna
position
o Vulnerable to P-static interference, cause by
Loop Antenna
146
o They have the ability to determine

which direction a signal is coming
from, so they are also called
directional antennas
o Most have two or three separate
coils of very thin wire wound at
varying angles to each other in the
shape of a bagel laid flat
o Most loop antennas are wide and
short and usually live on the
bottom of aircraft, but they can be
147
Automatic Direction Finder

[ADF]
o It is used as a means of identifying

positions, receiving low and medium
frequency voice communications, homing,
tracking, and for navigation on instrument
approach procedures.
o Most of the older ADF receivers need a long
wire antenna, called a sense wire
148
Lightning Antennas
o Have special mounting problems because
their job is to detect and amplify electrical
noise, any noise, including that from
ignition systems, alternators, loose skin
panels, and of course the atmosphere
(lightning).
o The intent of these lightning detection
systems is to filter out the non atmospheric
Marker Beacons Antenna
149
o Marker beacon signals

are highly directional
o These antenna
systems are relatively
simple and reliable, but
they have the same
delaminating problems
as other antennas.
UHF Antennas
150
Commonly used for transponders and DMEs

and are always found on the bottom of the
aircraft, about four inches long.
Two common type:
o Spike antenna
o Blade antenna
spike Antenna
151
o Spike should only be used for

transponders,
because
the
antenna length is tuned to one
frequency,
the
transponder
frequency.
o The spikes are prone to caking
up with oil, reducing the
transmitting range
o Cleaning
a
spike
antenna
doubles your transponder range
and
gets
rid
of
those
intermittent Mode C problems.
Blade Antenna
152
o Blade antenna is also called

a
broadband
antenna
because it is tuned for a
range of DME frequencies.
o The blade antennas are

susceptible to delamination,
which tends to detune the
frequency
response
and
distort
the
transmitted
signal.
153
The nav antenna is almost

always mounted on the vertical
tail. Among the exceptions are
some Beech Bonanzas that use
a top-mounted combination
antenna that contains both a
nav and com antenna.
Three types of NAV antennas:
o Cat Whisker
o Dual Blade
o Towel Bar
NAV Antenna
Cat whiskey
154
o Consists of a couple of rods

jutting out from each side
of the vertical stabilizer at
a 45-degree angle
o poor at receiving signals
from the side, and was
developed for aircraft that
fly low and commonly track
either directly to or from a
Towel Bar
155
Resembles the common bathroom fixture,

one on each side of the tail.
GPS Antenna
o The GPS satellites transmit less than five
watts of power.
o GPS antenna be mounted at the very top of
the fuselage.
o Communications radios can cause a lot of
interference with GPS as a result of the
156
o Especially
designed
to
survive an "unscheduled"
landing.
o Almost always on the upper
skin of the empennage and
are made of a flexible
material.
o Some may be buried in the
Emergency
locator
beacon
vertical tail or look
like small
com antennas.
antennas
157
radar altimeters
o Simple, comprising either a single
or dual antenna system.
o Look like plates about six inches
square and live on the bottom of
the aircraft.
Mounting and bonding
158
o Antenna is cracked or the paint worn off.

o Antenna base is not structurally strong. A
riveted doubler plate under the antenna base
prevents the vibration and work-hardening of
the skin.
o Antenna also must be electrically bonded
(grounded) to the airframe.
o A transmitting antenna also needs an effective
ground plane.
o Antennas should never be painted over their
Thank You!
159
Presented by:
Abada, Reymark
Bernabe, Renner
Brian
Calumba, Shaun
Patrick
Datingginoo, Cris
Diane
Dela Cruz, Gerald
Revilla, Michelle
Sacendoncillo, Mark
Paul
Salinas, Mark
160

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To navigate, a pilot needs to know the

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For the aircrafts to be able

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o On the next April It had an experimental

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Salt Lake City

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o In October 1928 The Aeronautics Branch

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o In September 1929 Army Lt. James Doolittle

o In 1932 The Aeronautics Branch began formal

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o In May 1941 The Civil Aeronautics

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The perfection of the Very-High-Frequency

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In March 1967 The FAA participated with the

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o In 1973 The last airway light beacon from the

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Flight instrumentsare the

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Common Flight Instruments

The attitude indicator (also known as anartificial

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Common Flight Instruments

Virtual Speed Indicator

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It is a bench with panels that display

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