TOPIK 2 : BUMI

Kerangka Topik 2
Tekanan Udara dan angin
Peredaran udara global
Taufan
Puting Beliung

Air Pressure (Tekanan Udara)

Apa yang dipelajari semasa Tingkatan 2..

Apa yang dipelajari semasa Tingkatan 2..

1. Udara mempunyai jisim. Maka ada berat (weight). W = mg
2. Tekanan udara adalah berat molekul udara yang menekan benda ke
bumi. Air presses down on all things in the Earth's surface. The pressure
exerted by air is known as air pressure or atmospheric pressure.
3. The features of air pressure are :
(a) acts in all direction
(b) changes from one place to another
(c) decreases the higher you go above ground level. This feature
exists because at high place, the amount on air decreases. This explains
why the air pressure on the top of a mountain is lower that at the foot of
the mountain.
4. In space, there is a nearly complete vacuum so the air pressure is zero.

Unit tekanan udara

The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of
pressure equal to 101,325 Pa or 1,013.25 hectopascals
or millibars. Equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92
inHg, 14.696 psi. (The pascal is a newton per
square meter or in terms of SI base units, kilogram
per meter per second-squared.)
Standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325 pascals =
1,013.25 hPa = 101.325 kPa.
Important to know: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
and 1 bar = 105 Pa

Air mendidih pada

suhu berapa
dipuncak Everest ?

Perkaitan tekanan udara dan cuaca

mb =
millibar

Home Barometer: alat yang boleh

digunakan untuk predict cuaca

Kenapa wujudnya angin?

Disebabkan oleh perbezaan tekanan udara akibat
pemanasan tidak sekata di atmosfera oleh matahari.
Pemanasan udara menyebabkan tekanan udara
berkurangan (warm air rises creating a low pressure)
Angin sejuk akan bergerak untuk mengantikan udara
panas (cooler dense air, produces high pressure)
Apabila udara bergerak dari tekanan tinggi ke tekanan
rendah maka terjadilah angin.
Lebih besar perbezaan maka lebih laju angin bergerak

Daya yang mempengaruhi angin

Angin mempunyai persamaan dinamik bagi fluid.

Dua jenis angin

1. Angin global
2. Angin tempatan
Ada 3 jenis Angin Global
Trade Winds
Prevailing Westerlies
Polar Easterlies
Kawasan : Doldrums dan Horse Latitude

Polar Easterlies (Kutub timuran)

Lingkaran angin dari kutub ke

garis latitud 60
Terbentuk dari angin sejuk
yang bergerak dari kutub

Trade Winds
Angin yang bertiup dari garis latitud 30 ke khatulistiwa
Digelar trade winds kerana digunakan oleh pelayar
zaman dahulu untuk perdagangan.
Anginnya bertiup steady 20 kmh
Di hemisfera utara : bertiup dari timur-laut dikenali sbg
Northeast Trade Winds
Di hemisfera utara : bertiup dari timur-laut dikenali sbg
Southeast Trade Winds.
Trade winds carry dust from the Sahara across the
Atlantic Ocean.

Prevailing Westerlies

Angin berada di antara latitud

30 and 60

Kawasan Doldrums
Berada di khatulistiwa dimana tiada angin kerana
udara panas menyejat dan menjadi kawasan
tekanan rendah.
Kenapa dipanggil doldrums?
Sailors found that there were no winds near the
equator for a period of time. The ships were
essentially stuck in one place, not being able to
move forward. These calm periods were called
doldrums.

Horse Latitudes (Latitud Kuda)

Berada pada 30 utara dan

selatan khatilistiwa dimana
angin adalah lemah
Kebanyakan gurun berada
dikawasan ini kerana udara
kering.

Angin Global

Jet Stream

Penemuan pada tahun 1940an.

Berada di atas dan bawah lapisan troposphere
Kawasan tekanan tinggi dan angin kencang
Sempadan pembahagi antara udara sejuk dan
panas

During January the domain of Polar air expands toward the

Equator so the Jet Stream occurs closer to the Equator

http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/FIG07_015.jpg

The Jet Stream often has

two separate branches

http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/circulation.html

Angin Tempatan (Local Winds)

Biasanya bergerak dalam

jarak dekat.
Disebabkan oleh ciri-ciri
geografi yang menyebabkan
perbezaan suhu tempatan.

Bayu Laut
Walaupun terkena pancaran matahari yang sama,
darat dan air menjadi panas pada kadar yang
berbeza.
Darat menjadi lebih panas maka wujud
perbezaan tekanan iaitu kawasan tekanan rendah
di darat dan kawasan tekanan tinggi di laut.
Maka udara akan bergerak dari laut ke darat
menghasilkan bayu laut.

Sea breeze
development

Bayu Darat (Land Breezes)

Pada waktu malam, darat menyejuk
dengan lebih cepat dari laut.
Ini menyebabkan kawasan tekanan
rendah di laut dan kawasan tekanan
tinggi di darat.
Maka udara akan bergerak dari darat
ke laut menghasilkan bayu darat.

Stepped Art
Fig. 7-5, p. 174

Apakah perbezaan bayu

darat dan bayu laut?

Bayu gunung dan Bayu Lembah

(Mountain and Valley Breezes)
Berlaku disebabkan pemanasan dan penyejukan kawasan
lereng gunung.
Pada siang hari terbentuk bayu lembah dan pada waktu
malam terbentuk bayu gunung.

Sea breeze-initiated clouds over Hawaii

Elnino (little boy)

El Nio dan La Nia merupakan dua fasa yang berbeza dikenali
sebagai kitaran El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (cycle).
Kitaran ENSO adalah merupakan istilah saintifik untuk
menggambarkan turun naik (fluctuations) dalam suhu lautan dan
atmosfera di lautan pasifik. .
La Nia is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and
El Nio as the warm phase of ENSO.
El Nino (little boy) the name was chosen based on the time of
year (around December) during which these warm waters events
tended to occur. Nelayan Peru mengganggap waktu ini adalah
tidak baik untuk menangkap ikan.
40

 Biasanya berlaku seali dalam dua ke tujuh

tahun. Boleh berlanjutan dari 9 bulan ke 2
tahun.
Every two to seven years, a warm current of
water replaces the usual cold current of water
off the west coast of Peru, South America. This
observed oceanic phenomenon is called El
Nio.

41

Keadaan Normal iaitu Bukan El Nino

42

43

The Normal Walker Circulation (no El Nio conditions)

Keadaan El nino
Dalam El Nio, angin yang menolak udara
adalah lemah.
Maka, terdapat lambakan air panas dari barat ke
timur di Peru. Proses upwelling berkurangan
bermakna kurang air sejuk dibawa naik ke
permukaan. Jadi kurang nutrient untuk ikan-ikan
Kedua kesan ini membuatkan air di kawasan
timur Lautan Pasifik menjadi lebih panas dan ini
adalah trademark kesan El Nio.
45

Fig. 7-32, p. 196

47

What brings certain weather phenomenon?

El Nino

La Nina

occurs when the surface

occurs when the surface
temperature rises above the
temperature falls below the
normal water temperature in the
normal water temperature in the
Equatorial Pacific Ocean creating
Equatorial Pacific Ocean creating
more humidity in the atmosphere
a more dry atmosphere
Known to create drought
Known to increase number of
hurricanes
conditions
Occur more frequently (every 3-7
years)

Kesan El Nio

50

La Nia SST Anomalies

Kesan LaNina pada Iklim

53

Kesan El Nino terhadap cuaca

54

Kesan El Nino terhadap cuaca

Islands like Tahiti, normally tropical paradises,
experience massive storms.
Hujan lebat di pantai barat Peru ; banjir
Kemarau di barat pasifik, termasuk kepulauan
nusantara, Australia.
Menjejas aktiviti penangkapan ikan di negeri2
barat laut Amerika Selatan.

55

Ribut Petir (thunderstorms)

Di kaitkan dengan:

Angin kencang
Gust fronts
Hujan batu
Kilat dan guruh
Puting Beliung
Hujan lebat melampau

Biasanya awan comulusnimbus

Awan terbentuk apabila udara ditekan naik tinggi
diatmosfera.
Cold fronts often create this condition
Suasana yang tidak stabil.

 Terdapat 3 peringkat:
Peringkat Cumulous : Udara panas naik dan
kondensasi membentuk awan, biasanya tiada hujan,
kilat, atau guruh
Peringkat matang: Terdapat angin panas Updraft,
udara lembab, DAN angin strong downdraft yang
kuat, hujan, kilat dan guruh
Peringkat pelapasan : Tiada lagi udara panas naik ke
atas. Didominasi angin kebawah (downdraft).
Permukaan telah menjadi sejuk. Udara panas yg
memberi tenaga kepada ribut sudah dipotong. The
surface has been cooled, cutting off the warm, moist
air that fuels the storm. Oapabila hujan habis dari
atmosfera, ribut pubn habis.

Pembentukan ribut petir

Comulusnimbus

Matang

Pelapasan : Dissipating

Hujan Batu
(Hail)

Taufan : Hurricanes

Hurricane: Atlantik dan Pasifik Timur

Typhoon: Pasifik Barat
Cyclone: Lautan Hindi
Kawasan sistem tekan rendah ekstrem
Memerlukan 60 m air laut dan suhu 26.5 C ke atas

Pembentukan taufan : Disebabkan peredaran aging global,

kesan Coriolis dan arus lautan.

Ribut Tropika : Tropical Storm

Kelajuan angin lebih 39 mph = 62.4 kmh
If hits land, most damage caused is by rainfall.
If winds in the system reach 39mph, the
system becomes classified as a Tropical Storm
(and it is given a name)
If the system continues to gain strength and
winds speeds reach 74 mph = 118kmh , it is
officially classified as a hurricane

Ciri-ciri taufan

Inflow and Outflow

Updrafts so strong, more air is escaping the top of the clouds than can be brought
in

Eye Wall and Eye Wall Clouds

Ring of violent super-cell Thunderstorms at the center of hurricane

Tornadoes can be spawned here

Eye

Central low air pressure of hurricane

Region of relatively clear skies and calm winds
Air descending: compressional heating of air even though central air pressure
continues to drop

Storm Surge

Hurricane pulls up ocean water (lifts the surface) an average of 1cm for each
1mb drop in pressure
Regions along shores and coasts are inundated with water being pushed ahead of
the hurricane, by intense precipitation and, sometimes, even excessively high
tides.

outflow

outflow

Eyewall clouds

inflow

Eyewall clouds

EYE

inflow

Hurricane Classification
The Safir-Simpson Scale : Divides hurricanes into
categories based on maximum sustained winds.

Type

KNOTS

MPH

millibars

inches of
mercury

Feet

Mete
rs

Damag
e

Depressio
n

less
than 34

less
than 39

------

------

------

------

------

Tropical
Storm

35 - 63

39 - 73

------

------

------

------

------

Category
1

64 - 82

74 - 95

greater
than 980

greater than
28.94

3-5

1.0 1.7

minimal

Category
2

83 - 95

96 - 110

979 - 965

28.50 - 28.91

6-8

1.8 2.6

moderat
e

Category
3

96 - 113

111 130

964 - 945

27.91 - 28.47

912

2.7 3.8

extensiv
e

Category
4

114 135

131 155

944 - 920

27.17 - 27.88

13 18

3.9 5.6

extreme

Category
5

136+

156+

less than
920

less than
27.17

19+

5.7+

catastrop
hic

Category 1

Conversions : 1 mph = 1.609 kph

Winds- 74-95 mph
Storm Surge- 4-5 ft.
Pressure- 986mb
Damage- mobile homes, trees, minor costal
flooding

Category 2

Winds- 96-110 mph

Storm surge- 6-8 ft.
Pressure- 965- 979 mb
Damage- Some roof and window. Damage to
piers on coast. Small crafts. vegetation

Category 3

Winds- 111-130 mph

Storm surge- 9-12 ft.
Pressure- 945-964 mb
Damage- structure damage to homes and
buildings. Mobile homes destroying. Major
coastal flooding with a potential for inland
flooding.

Category 4

Winds 131-155 mph

Storm surge- 13-18 ft.
Pressure- 920-944 mb
Damage- Complete roof damage. Major
erosion to beaches. Further inland flooding.

Category 5

Winds- Greater than 156 mph

Storm surge- over 19 ft.
Pressure- less than 920 mb
Damage- Roofs torn off, buildings collapse,
major inland flooding.

Penamaan Taufan
Permulaannya menggunakan latitude dan longitud.
Tetapi menjadi terlalu komplicated lagi pun taufan
bergerak!

Perang Dunia Kedua guna istilah militari

Alpha, Bravo, Tango, etc

Tiada penamaan sehingga 1953

Awal 1950s guna nama perempuan
Lewat 1970s Guna nama lelaki dan perempuan
Alternate male/female name for Pacific or Atlantic
hurricanes

When a season is very active, Greek letters are

used to name tropical storms after the letters of
the alphabet had been used.

Hurricane Dangers
The most dangerous
component of a hurricane is the
Storm Surge
As the storm makes landfall, a
mound of ocean water (driven
by strong winds AND the
sucking power of the strong
low pressure system) is pushed
on shore
More people die as a result of
drowning, than do of strong
winds

STORM SURGE ACCOUNTS FOR

90% OF
HURRICANE-CAUSED DEATHS

Hurricane Katrina
In August of 2005, Tropical
Storm Katrina developed over the
Bahamas
As it approached Florida, it
developed into a Category I
hurricane
It lost some strength over the land
(turned back into a Tropical
Storm), but picked right back up
when it moved back over the
warm water of the Gulf of
Mexico

Hurricane Katrina
As the storm moved across the
Gulf of Mexico, it RAPIDLY
developed (from a Category II
to a Category V in only 9 hours)
Wind speeds reached 175 mph
A mound of water was pushed
toward Louisiana and
Mississippi
even though wind speeds
slowed (to a Category III) by
the time it made landfall

Hurricane Katrina
In August of 2005, Tropical
Storm Katrina developed over the
Bahamas
As it approached Florida, it
developed into a Category I
hurricane
It lost some strength over the land
(turned back into a Tropical
Storm), but picked right back up
when it moved back over the
warm water of the Gulf of
Mexico

Hurricane Katrina
As the storm moved across
the Gulf of Mexico, it
RAPIDLY developed (from
a Category II to a Category V
in only 9 hours)
Wind speeds reached 175
mph
A mound of water was
pushed toward Louisiana and
Mississippi
even though wind speeds
slowed (to a Category III) by
the time it made landfall

Flooding
While the storm surge
associated with Katrina
was estimated to be 28 feet
above normal sea level
In addition, much of the
city is BELOW sea level
A systems of levees and
dams were supposed to
protect the city, but this
was too high
85% of the city flooded

Most Damaging Hurricanes

1) Katrina (2005)- 75 billion

2)Andrew (1992) 34 billion
3)Charley (2004)- 14 billion
4) Ivan (2004)- 13 billion
5) Wilma (2005)- 12 billion
..9) Agnes 1972 8.6 billion

Puting Beliung : Tornado

Apakah itu Puting Beliung :Tornado

Puting Beliung :
putaran udara yang kuat
dalam kelongsong udara
dari tanah ke awan ribut :
a violently rotating
column of air extending
from a thunderstorm to
the ground.

Puting Beliung kerap berlaku di

Amerika Syarikat
Dalam setahun lebih
kurang 1,200 puting
beliung dengan purata
70 kematian
"Tornado Alley," :
negeri2 spt Arkansas,
Iowa, Kansas,
Louisiana, Minnesota,
Nebraska, North
Dakota, Ohio,
Oklahoma, South
Dakota, and Texas.

How does a tornado form?

Most tornadoes form from
thunderstorms. You need warm,
moist air from the Gulf of Mexico
and cool, dry air from Canada.
When these two air masses meet,
they create instability in the
atmosphere.
North America is a relatively large
continent that extends from the
tropical south into arctic areas, and
has no major north-south mountain
range to block air flow between
these two areas. This unique
topography allows for many
collisons of warm and cold air;
creating the conditions necessary to
breed strong, long-lived storms
which occur many times a year.

Tornado
Alley

How does a tornado form?

Under tornado-favorable
condition, a wind shear (a
change in wind direction and
an increase in wind speed
with increasing height)
creates an invisible,
horizontal spinning effect in
the lower atmosphere.
Step 1: Spinning in the lower
atmosphere

How does a tornado form?

Rising air within the

updraft tilts the
rotating air from
horizontal to vertical.

Step 2: Lifted and tilted from

horizontal to vertical

How does a tornado form?

An area of rotation, 26 miles wide, now

extends through much
of the storm. Most
strong and violent
tornadoes form within
this area of strong
rotation.

Step 3: Extending and Forming

Tornadoes Take Many Shapes and Sizes

Weak Tornadoes

Strong Tornadoes

Violent Tornadoes

88% of all tornadoes

Less than 5% of tornado deaths
Lifetime 1 - 10+ minutes
Winds less than 110 mph

11% of all tornadoes

Nearly 30% of all tornado deaths
May last 20 minutes or longer
Winds 110-205 mph

Less than 1% of all tornadoes

70% of all tornado deaths
Lifetime can exceed 1 hour
Winds greater than 205 mph

Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity

SCALE WIND SPEED

POSSIBLE DAMAGE

F0

40-72 mph

Light damage: Branches broken off trees; minor roof damage

F1

73-112 mph

Moderate damage: Trees snapped; mobile home pushed off

foundations;roofs damaged

F2

113-157 mph

Considerable damage: Mobile homes demolished; trees

uprooted; strong built homes unroofed

F3

158-206 mph

Severe damage: Trains overturned; cars lifted off the

ground; strong built homes have outside walls blown away

F4

207-260 mph

Devastating damage: Houses leveled leaving piles of

debris; cars thrown 300 yards or more in the air

F5

261-318 mph

Incredible damage: Strongly built homes completely

blown away; automobile-sized missiles generated

Tornado in Salt Lake City

Salt Lake City Tornado, Aug.
11, 1999

Orange fireball is a power sub-station

exploding.

On August 11, 1999, an F2 tornado touched down in the

metropolitan area of Salt Lake City. The tornado lasted ten
minutes and killed one person, injured more than 80 people, and
caused more than $170 million in damages. It was the most
destructive tornado in Utah's history.

TORNADO LIFECYCLE STAGES

Stage 1: Dust whirl

Circulation of air on ground with funnel cloud extension

Stage 2: Organizing Stage

Funnel cloud continues dropping

Wind rotation speed increasing

Stage 3: Mature Stage

Funnel cloud at greatest width

Wind rotation speed increasing
Funnel cloud on ground

Stage 4: Shrinking Stage

Funnel cloud shrinks in diameter increasing wind rotation speed to

maximum
Most dangerous stage

Stage 5: Decay Stage

Funnel cloud takes on a ropey look no longer vertical below cloud

base
Final stage for tornado: dissipates or is pulled back into cloud

Wall cloud
3rd Stage: Mature

4th Stage: Shrinking

1st Stage Dust Whirl

5th Stage: Decay Stage

2nd Stage: Organizing

LOOK
AT
THESE

MEASURING DESTRUCTION
The Enhanced Fujita Scale rates tornadoes based on
the amount and type of wind damage produced.

F-0. Light damage

F0
40-72 mph
Light damage:
Branches broken off trees; minor roof damage

F-1. Moderate damage

F1
73-112 mph
Moderate damage:
Trees snapped; mobile home pushed off
foundations;roofs damaged

F-2. Considerable damage

F2
113-157 mph
Considerable
damage: Mobile homes demolished; trees
uprooted; strong built
homes unroofed

F-3. Severe damage

F3
158-206 mph
Severe damage: rains
overturned; cars lifted off the ground; strong
built homes have outside walls blown away

F-4. Devastating damage

F4
207-260 mph
Devastating damage:
Houses leveled leaving piles of debris; cars
thrown 300 yards or more in the air

F-5. Incredible damage.

F5
261-318 mph
Incredible damage: Strongly built
homes completely blown away; automobile-sized missiles
generated
Strong frame houses leveled off foundations and swept
away; automobile-sized missiles fly through the air in
excess of 100 yards

Amaran Putting Beliung

Tornado Watch
Conditions are ideal for a
tornado to be created.

Tornado Warning
An actual tornado has
been sighted in the area
or is indicated by
weather radar.