Good
Bad
Notes:
(1)A sentence can be perfectly meaningful but still
be ungrammatical:
*This is a four doors car.
*He drove a red big car.
Its perfectly clear what these sentences mean, but
they are ungrammatical.
(2) The word grammatical here does not mean the
same thing that it meant in grade school.
She aint got no crayons.
Where were you at, John. We was waitin on you.
NOTES
(1)All of these sentences would be ungrammatical to
a native speaker in all dialects of English; i.e., there
is more going on here than someone speaking
nonstandard English. This is what makes them
violations of descriptive rules.
(2)The issue is grammaticality; i.e., utterances can be
easy to understand but still ungrammatical.
The science of linguistics is concerned exclusively
with descriptive grammar, not prescriptive grammar.
So, descriptive grammar is the domain of linguistics,
prescriptive grammar is the domain of (mostly selfappointed and often not very knowledgeable) usage experts.
More about this later when we discuss dialect.
Answers:
Phil owns a three-legs cat.
three-legged cat.]
[prescriptive; to
boldly go is a split infinitive, considered by many to be bad form.]
[descriptive; should
read, I wonder who Frieda went swimming with. or the Yalie version, I
wonder with whom Mary went swimming.]
[prescriptive; We
What Myron has done with my star fish? [descriptive; What has
Myron done with my star fish?]
4. Recursion
All languages exhibit a property called recursion.
Recursion is a general principle that can be seen in
many areas other than language. In general, recursion is
seen whenever things can be embedded inside of
other things, which in turn can be embedded inside of
other things, which can be
Simple example: Russian Nesting Dolls (nesting is
another word for embedding).
Russian Dolls
(For reasons that are not obvious, the subject-predicate inversion rule that
normally applies in questions is blocked when the question is embedded
in a sentence.)
5. Head First/Head Last (I will not go over this in class; read it on your own)
Phrases in (almost) all languages contain a special
boss word called the head. The head controls
grammatical features of other words in the phrase.
The fox in socks is in the yard.
*The fox in socks are in the yard.
fox is singular, socks is plural. Why is it that the verb
agrees with the fox rather than socks? Because its
the boss word; i.e., the head of the noun phrase fox
in socks.
Flying out of Kalamazoo on small planes is scary.
*Flying out of Kalamazoo on small planes are scary.
Flying here is the head of the phrase because the
phrase is mainly about flying, not planes, so the verb
agrees with the singular flying, not the plural
planes.
to Tokyo (preposition)
Tokyo to (postposition)
Kids do not need to learn that there are soundpattern rules; they do need to learn which
particular sound-pattern rules apply to the
language they are learning.
They do not need to learn about the concept of
recursion, but they do need to learn the languagespecific rules that constrain exactly how
recursion occurs. For example, the odd rule that
blocks subject-predicate inversion in
I wasnt sure what I should do.
is specific to English. Recursion is not. Recursion
is part of the Universal Grammar (and an
extremely important part of it).
Modularity
Modularity characterizes all complex systems. A
car is not a mass of metal and plastic that
knows how to go. Cars have specialized
modules:
Compare:
*Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
*Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.
Both sentences are ungrammatical, but the 2nd
sentence is more problematic than the 1st.
Both sentences are meaningless, but the 2nd
sentence also violates rules of English syntax.
This is an illustration of the concept of modularity
your knowledge of language consists of semantics
and syntax modules that are distinct from one
another (autonomous).
agnostic
atheist
What about:
batter [b] (as in baseball)
batter [b] (as in pancakes)
Is the [] of He is the next batter. a
morpheme?
Is the [] of pancake batter a morpheme?
Moral: Its not the sound sequence per se,
its the function that the sound sequence
plays in the word.
Rule
/t,d/ []
when intervocalic,
(betw two vowels)
but only when the
2nd vowel is
unstressed
Translation: /t/ & /d/
are pronounced as
a flap when they
occur between two
vowels and when
the 2nd vowel is
unstressed (weak).
/bt/
phonemic (phonological,
linguistic, underlying
representation)
Phonological
Rules
[b]
phonetic (surface
phonetic form)
Other examples:
/g/: geese vs. gone
/t/: tap kitten button eighth fatty
The /g/ of geese and the /g/ of gone are
allophones: Same
phonemic/phonological/linguistic category;
different phonetic realizations of the category.
Compare /l/ of Lee vs. law.
These distinctions vary across languages.
Differences which are allophonic in one language
may be phonemic in another, and vice versa.
What about [ph] vs. [p]; i.e., the aspirated /p/ in pot
versus the unaspirated /p/ in spot. Can we find a pair of
words in which an aspirated /p/ means one thing while an
otherwise identical word with an unaspirated /p/ means
something else?
The fact that a sound occurs in a language does not mean
that it has the status of a phoneme. Vowel nasalization:
compare the vowels in pad and man (and notice
what youre velum is doing): [pd] [mn] (tilde = nasalized)
But, vowel nasalization is predictable in English it
occurs whenever a vowel precedes a nasal consonant.
The presence vs. absence of nasalization never signals a
difference in meaning; i.e., it is not contrastive.
So, in English, [] and [] are allophones of the phonemic
category //.
Terminology
In English, [o] and [o] are:
1. allophonic variants or allophones of /o/
Summary
1. A phonemic or phonological type is an abstract
linguistic category that can be phonetically
realized in different ways.
2. These phonetically different but phonologically/
phonemically/linguistically equivalent
realizations of phonemes are called allophones
of the phoneme category.
3. The phonemic/phonological layer of the
language system is a distinct module, separate
from the phonetic module.
Dog
(abstract category, analogous to a phoneme)
The mental
concept of
supermanhood
(phoneme)
allowaves
An Important Thing
The wave analogy is useful but imperfect.
Allowaves different realizations of the abstract
category wave are roughly analogous to
allophones of /t/ (or any other phoneme). They are
different from one another but equivalent members
of the category.
But heres where the analogy is imperfect: These
different kinds of waves all mean the same thing
Hi. The different allophones of /t/ (or /p/ or /o/ )
are equivalent, but phonemes, by themselves,
never mean anything. Ever.
Phonemes are capable of signaling or conveying a
difference in meaning. Meaning something and
being capable of conveying a difference in meaning
before
against or counter to
the root word is plural
most (funniest, dumbest, tallest, )
Lesson
Morphemes mean something.
Phoneme differences can convey
differences in meaning (i.e., they serve a
contrastive function).
Allophonic differences do not do either.
/t/
(abstract phoneme type)
[pht]
pot
(released)
[pht]
pot
(unreleased)
[thp]
[stp]
[ki]
top
stop
kitty
(aspirated) (unaspirated) (flap)
[bnn ]
button
(glottal stop,
nasal release)
/o/
[o]
classes
[o]
boat moan
Nasalized/non-nasalized
allophones of /o/
French
/o/ /o/
Two distinct phoneme
Pragmatics
The module referred to as pragmatics may or may not be
properly viewed as part of the linguistic system, but it
clearly plays a major role in language comprehension.
Customer:
Pharmacist:
Customer:
Pharmacist:
Customer:
Pharmacist:
Customer:
Pharmacist:
Customer:
Pharmacist:
Is my prescription ready?
Yes.
Can you get it for me?
Yes.
Will you get it for me?
Yes.
I have a baseball bat. Ill use it.
I didnt know that.
Get it for me. Now.
OK. Why didnt you say so when you first came in?
A Short Story
Janie heard the jingling of the ice cream truck. She
ran upstairs to get her piggy bank. She shook it till
some money came out.
Roughly how old is Janie?
Does the money consist of coins or paper
currency?
What is Janie likely to do with the money?
Where in the language of the story do we find the
answers to these questions?
If we dont get this information entirely out of the
language, where does it come from?
A Shorter Story
Tyler brought a six pack to the party. His mother
found out about it.
How old would you guess Tyler is?
Six pack of what?
What do you think Moms reaction was?