ME 3604: Machine

Design
Design of Permanent Joints
Dr. Faraz Junejo

Introduction
This chapter introduces permanent
joining
methods
which
include:
welding,
soldering,
cementing,
bonding, etc.
Permanent joining usually leads to
significant
savings
over
nonpermanent joining (because of the
elimination of fasteners and holes).

Welding
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of
metal together by hammering, pressure or
fusion. Filler metal may or may not be used.

It is the strongest and most common method of

permanently joining steel components together.

Arc welding is the most important since it is

adaptable
to
various
manufacturing
environments and is relatively cheap.

A weldment is fabricated by welding together

a collection of metal shapes.

A welded joint has following

advantages:

Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint

has higher efficiency. An efficiency > 95 % is
easily possible.
Since the added material is minimum, the joint has
lighter weight.
Welded joints have smooth appearances.
It is less expensive.
Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible
through welding.

Some typically welded machine

components are listed below:
Pressure vessels, steel structures.
Flanges welded to shafts and axles.
Crank shafts
Heavy hydraulic turbine shafts
Large gears, pulleys, flywheels
Gear housing
Machine frames and bases
Housing and mill-stands.

Types of welds
The form of a welded joint is dictated largely by
the layout of the joined components.

Two most common forms or type of welds are:

1.fillet or lap joint : are the most used type for
machine elements
2.butt or groove joint : are usually used for
pressure vessels

 Since welding is associated with a significant

increase in temperature, there will be some
metallurgical changes in the parent material
in the vicinity of the weldments.
Thus, when checking for failure of the parent
material in the vicinity of the weldments, it is
recommended to use the properties of HotRolled (HR) material even if the material is
Cold-Drawn (CD).
Also, residual stresses might be introduced
during welding because of clamping or
sometimes because of the order of welding.

Residual Stresses
Heat from welding may cause localized
expansion, which is taken up during
welding by either the molten metal or the
placement of parts being welded.
When the finished weldment cools, some
areas cool and contract more than others,
leaving residual stresses.

Butt welding
Butt welding is a welding technique used to
connect parts which are nearly parallel and don't
overlap. i.e. joining two pieces of material together
along a single edge in a single plane.
Butt-welding joint is made by gradually heating up
the two weld ends with a weld plate and then
joining them under a specific pressure.
Butt welding joints are designed for
objects that rest on the same plane,
such as:
steel plates used to cover a floor or
roof
Pressure vessels i.e.
closed
container designed to hold gases or
liquids at a pressure substantially
different from the ambient pressure

Different types of Butt welds

Lap or fillet joint

Lap or fillet joint is obtained by overlapping the
plates and welding their edges.
The fillet joints may be single transverse fillet,
double transverse fillet or parallel fillet joints

Basic weld types and their

symbols

 After welding is done the surface is properly

finished.
The contour of the welded joint may be flush,
concave or convex and the surface finish may
be grinding finish, machining finish or chipping
finish.
The symbols of the contour and the surface
finish are shown below

Welding Symbols
A

weld is fabricated by welding together a

collection of metal shapes, cut to particular
configurations.

The

weld must be precisely specified on working

drawing and this is done by welding symbol, Fig.
9-1.

The

arrow of this symbol points to the joint to

be welded.

Reference
line
body of
the
The

symbol contains
as many of the
Supplementary
following
elements as are deemed
necessary:
Arrow
symbols
Basic weld symbols in
Finish symbols
Fig. 9-2
Tail
Dimensions and other
Specification or

Welding Symbols
(contd.)
Welding symbol standardized by American Welding Society
Specifies details of weld on machine drawings

Fig. 94 Circle on weld symbol indicates that the welding is to go

all around.

Welding Symbols (contd.)

WELD

Fig. 91

Welding Symbols (contd.)

Arrow side of a joint is the line, side, area, or near member to which
the arrow points
The side opposite the arrow side is the other side
Shape of weld is shown with the symbols below

Fig. 92

Example
If the desired weld is a fillet weld of
size 10 mm to be done on each side
of Tee joint with convex contour, the
weld symbol will be as following

Types of Welding
There are 2 general types of welds:
1. Fillet
Fillet welds
welds for general machine elements.
2. Butt or groove
groove welds
welds for pressure vessels, piping
systems,...
Bead
Plug or slot
There are also others such as:
,

Bead

Fillet

Plug
or
slot

Figure 9-2
Arc and gas-weld symbols

groove

Parts to be joined must be arranged so that there is

sufficient clearance for welding operation.

Due to heat, there are metallurgical changes in the

parent metal in the vicinity of the weld.

Residual stresses may be introduced because of

clamping or holding.

These residual stresses are not severe enough to

cause concern.

A light heat treatment after welding is done to

relive these stresses.

When the parts to be welded are thick, a

preheating will also be of benefit.

Welding Symbol Examples

Figure 9-3 Fillet

welds

Welding Symbol Examples

(contd.)

Figure 9-4
The circle on the weld symbol indicates
that the welding is to go all around.

Welding Symbol Examples

(contd.)

Figure 9-5

Welding Symbol Examples

(contd.)

Welding Symbol Examples

(contd.)

Figure 9-6

Tensile Butt Joint

Simple butt joint loaded in tension or compression

Stress is normal stress

Throat h of the weld does not include extra reinforcement

l: Length of the weld
Reinforcement adds some strength for static loaded joints
Reinforcement adds stress
concentration
and
therefore it should be
removed by grinding or
machining if the joint is
subjected
to
fatigue
Fig. 97a
loading

Shear Butt Joint

Simple butt joint loaded in shear
Average shear stress

Fig. 97b

Butt welds

The reinforcement can be desirable, but it

varies somewhat and does produce stress
concentration, for example at point A in the
figure. If fatigue loads exist, it is good practice
to grind or machine off the reinforcement.

Butt welds strength

The main failure mechanism of welded butt
joint is tensile failure. Therefore the strength
of a butt joint is:

F = ST hl
where
F = allowable load
ST = allowable tensile strength of the weld
material.

h = weld throat
l = length of the weld.

Summary: Stress components in

the weld throat cross section of
butt weldment

Transverse Fillet Weld

For a Fillet weld loaded in tension

Fig. 98

Weld loading is complex i.e. The forces in each

weldment will have two components. Normal

force Fn and Shear force Fs where their
magnitudes change with the angle.

Transverse Fillet Weld

In Fig. 99 a portion of the welded joint has
been isolated from Fig. 98 as a free body.
From equilibrium the magnitudes are
found to be:

Fig. 99

Transverse Fillet Weld

(contd.)
Summation of forces
Law of sines

Solving for throat thickness t

Fig. 99

Transverse Fillet Weld

Nominal stresses(contd.)
at
angle

Von Mises Stress at

angle

Fig. 99

 Largest von Mises stress occurs at = 62.5 with value of

max = 2.16F/(hl). The corresponding values of
and , are = 1.196 F/(hl) and = 0.623 F/(hl).
Maximum shear stress occurs at = 67.5 with value of
max = 1.207F/(hl) with a corresponding = 0.5 F/
(hl).

Experimental Stresses in Transverse

Experimental
Fillet Weldresults are more complex

Summary
However this analysis procedure is too
complicated. Also, the geometry of weldments
is not uniform.
Instead, a simplified (conservative) approach
is used for design purposes.
The approach ignores the normal stresses and
assumes that the external force is carried as shear
stress only on the smallest throat area of the
weldment (the smallest value of t @

Simplified approach
Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure

P
P

As seen earlier, the general stress distribution in the weld

metal is complicated.

In design, a simple procedure is used assuming that entire

load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is the
smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld.

As seen earlier, the general stress distribution in the weld

metal is complicated.

In design, a simple procedure is used assuming that entire

load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is the
smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld.
If the fillet weld has equal base and height, (h, say), then the
cross section area of the throat is given by
With the above consideration
the permissible load carried
by a transverse fillet weld is
P = Ss Athroat
where
SS = allowable shear stress
Athroat = throat area =

With the above consideration

the permissible load carried
by a transverse fillet weld is
P = Ss Athroat
where
SS = allowable shear stress
Athroat = throat area =

Please note that for a double transverse fillet joint

the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet
joint.

Transverse Fillet Weld

Simplified Model
No analytical approach accurately predicts the experimentally measured
stresses.
Standard practice is to use a simple and conservative model
Assume the external load is carried entirely by shear forces on the minimum
throat area.

By ignoring normal stress on throat, the shearing stresses are inflated

sufficiently to render the model conservative.
By comparison with previous maximum shear stress model, this inflates
estimated shear stress by factor of 1.414/1.207 = 1.17.

Summary: Fillet welds

Conservative because all the external force is
assumed to cause shear stress knowing that the
shear strength is almost half of the normal
strength.
According to this approach, the shear stress is
found as:

The same equation is also used to calculate the

shear stress when a fillet weld is loaded in
shear.

Parallel Fillet Welds

Same equation also applies for
simpler case of simple shear loading
in fillet weld

Note: Typically the depth of

the throat h should be at
least as thick as the thickness
of metal you are welding.

Fig. 911

Example: 1

Arrow points to the joint to be welded

Indicates two fillet weld, hence
l = length of the weld = 2b.
2F
hl
( hl )
F
2
since,

Answers
9-1: F= 49.5kN
9-2: F= 22.1 kip
9-3: F= 49.5kN
9-4: F= 44.2 kip

Exercise: 1
Two plates 200 mm wide and 10 mm thick
are to be welded by means of transverse
welds at the ends. If the plates are
subjected to a load of 70 kN, find the size
of the weld (i.e. length of the weld)
assuming the allowable tensile stress 70
MPa.

Exercise: 1 (solution)
According to the simplified design principle of fillet
(transverse) joint, the weld is designed assuming
maximum shear stress occurs along the throat
area; i.e.

Since tensile strength is specified the shear

strength may be calculated as half of tensile
strength, i.e., SS = 0.5 ST = 35 MPa

Now the size or length of the weld can be computed

by rearranging0.707
Eq:9.3
F
0.707 (70 103 )
l

h
(35 106 )(10 10 3 )

l 282.8mm

Exercise: 1 (solution)
Now if we assume there contd.
are two welds, then in this case length of
the weld = 2l, hence
0.707 F
0.707 (70 103 )
2l

h
(35 106 )(10 10 3 )
Hence the minimum
l 141
.4mmof the weld is 141.4 mm.
length
However some extra length of the weld is to be provided as
allowance for starting and stopping of the bead (a deposit of filler
material from a single pass). An usual allowance of 12.5 mm is kept.
(Note that the allowance has no connection with the plate
thickness)
Adding an allowance of 12.5 mm for stopping and starting of the
bead, the length of the weld should be 154 mm.

Exercise: 2
A plate 50 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is
to be welded to another plate by means of
parallel fillet welds. The plates are
subjected to a load of 50 kN. Find the
length of the weld. Assume allowable
shear strength to be 56 MPa.

Exercise: 2 (solution)
In a parallel fillet welding two lines of welding are to be
provided. Each line shares a load of F= 50kN/2 = 25kN
Hence the minimum length of the weld (l) is given
by rearranging Eq:3

0.707 F
0.707 (25 103 )
l

h
(56 106 )(12.5 10 3 )
l 50.5mm of 12.5 mm for stopping and
Adding an allowance
starting of the bead, the length of the weld should
be 63 mm.

Example: 2

2F
hl
( hl )
F
2
since,

The circle on the weld symbol indicates

that the welding is to go all around, hence
l = length of the weld = 2 (b + d)

Answers
9-13: = 141 Mpa
9-14: = 22.6 kpsi
9-15: = 177 MPa
9-16: = 15.1 kpsi

The Strength of Welded

Joints
The electrode materials are standardized and
they are usually chosen such that they have higher
strength than the parent materials.
Table 9 - 3 gives the minimum properties for the
AWS electrode classes.
It should be noted that the table gives the
tensile yield strength of the electrode material.
The shear yield strength is found using the
distortion energy theory as:

Minimum Weld-Metal Properties

(Table 93)

It is preferable, in designing welded components, to select a steel

that will result in a fast, economical weld.

Best results are obtained for steels having a UNS specifications

between G10140 and G10230.

All these steels have a tensile strength in the hot-rolled condition in

the range of 60 to 70 kpsi.

Permissible stresses are now based on the yield strength of the

material instead of the ultimate strength, and the code permits the
use of a variety of ASTM structural steels having yield strengths
varying from 33 to 50 kpsi.

For these ASTM steels, Sy = 0.5 Su.

Table 9-4 lists the formulas specified by the code for calculating
these permissible stresses for various load conditions.

Stresses Permitted by the AISC Code for

Weld Metal

The Strength of Welded

Joints (contd.)
As mentioned earlier, the parent material in the vicinity of
the weldment will be subjected to high temperatures and
thus its properties might change.
Therefore, if the parent material is Cold-Dawn it will be
heat treated and thus it will have properties similar to a HotRolled material (in the vicinity of the weldment).
According to the welding code the allowable shear stress
in the base material is:

Example: 3

 Problem 9-9:
Since during welding due to high
temperatures cold-rolled properties degrade to hot-rolled
properties in the neighborhood of the weld, therefore using
table 9.4 for fillet welds imply:

allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y

Stress permissible for weld metal

Stress permitted on base metal

Now using Table A-20 yields

1018CD: Sut = 440 MPa; Sy = 370 MPa
1018HR: Sut = 400 MPa; Sy = 220 MPa
allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y
Hence,
allow min 0.3( 400),0.4( 220)
allow min120,88
Limiting value is 88 MPa

Therefore for both materials

i.e. weldment allowable load is
given by:
2F
hl
( hl )
F
31.1 kN
2
since,

Now using Table A-20 yields

1035HR: Sut = 72 kpsI; Sy = 39.5 kpsi
1020CD: Sut = 68 kpsI; Sy = 57 kpsi
1020HR: Sut = 55kpsI; Sy = 30 kpsi

Hence,

allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y

allow min 0.3(55),0.4(30)

allow min16.5,12
Limiting value is 12 kpsi

Therefore for both materials

i.e. weldment allowable load is
given by:
2F
hl
( hl )
F
21.2 kpsi
2
since,

Strength of Welded
Joints: Summary
Must check for failure in parent material and in weld
Weld strength is dependent on choice of electrode material
Weld material is often stronger than parent material
Parent material experiences heat treatment near weld
Cold drawn parent material may become more like hot
rolled in vicinity of weld
Often welded joints are designed by following codes rather
than designing by the conventional factor of safety method

The procedure for evaluating the strength of welded joints is as follows:

Find the primary shear stress due to external forces.

Find the secondary shear stress due torsion and/or
bending moments.
Add the primary and secondary shear stress
components using vector summation.
Find the strength of weldments, and thus the allowable
load.
Find the strength of the parent material and thus the
allowable load.

Stresses in Welded Joints in

Torsion

Figure 9-12 illustrates a cantilever of length l welded to

a column by 2 fillet welds.
The reaction at the
support of a cantilever
always consists of shear
force V and a moment
reaction M.
The shear force produces
a primary shear in the
welds of magnitude

V
'
A

(9.4)

where A is the throat

area of the welds.

 The moment at the

support
produces
secondary
shear
or
torsion of the welds, and
this stress is given by
Mr
"
(9.5)

where
r:
distance from the
centroid of the weld
group to the point in the
weld of interest.
J: second polar moment
of area of the group

Fillet Welds Loaded in Torsion:

Summary

Fillet welds carrying both direct

shear V and moment M
Primary shear
Eq: 9.4

Secondary shear
Eq: 9.5

A is the throat area of all welds

r is distance from centroid of
weld group to point of interest
J is second polar moment of
area of weld group about
centroid of group

Fig. 912

Figure 9-13 shows 2 welds in a group. The

rectangles represent the throat areas of the
welds.
Weld 1 has a throat
width b1 = 0.707 h1
Weld 2 has a throat
width d2 = 0.707 h2
Throat area of both
welds together is
A = A1 + A2 = b1d1
+ b2 d 2
which is the area to
be used in Eq. (9Eq: 9.4
4) to compute

 The x-axis passes

through the centroid G1
of the weld 1.
The second moment of
area about this axis is

b1d13
Ix
12
Similarly, the second
moment of area about an
axis passing through G1
parallel to the y-axis is

d1b13
Iy
12
The second polar
moment of areas of weld
1 and weld 2 about their
centroids are

3
1 1

3
1 1

bd
db
J G1 I x I y

12
12
b2 d 23 d 2b23
JG2 I x I y

12
12

 The centroid G of the weld group is located at

A1 x1 A2 x2
x
A

A1 y1 A2 y2
y
A

The distances r1 and r2 from G1 and G2 are respectively given by

r1 x x1 y

12

2 12

r2 y2 y x2 x

Using the parallel axis

theorem, the second polar
moment of area of the weld
group is

J J G1 A1r12 J G 2 A2 r22
This is the quantity to be used in Eq. (9-5). The distance r must
be measured from G and the moment M computed about G.

 The quantities

b13

and

d 23, which represent the weld width are

small and hence can be neglected.

The terms b d 3 12 and d b3 12 Makes JG1 and JG2 linear in the

1 1
2 2
weld width.
Setting weld widths b1 and d2 to unity leads to the idea of treating
each fillet weld as line.
The resulting second moment of area is then a unit second polar
moment of area.
The value of Ju same regardless of weld size.
Since throat width of a fillet weld is 0.707h, the relation between
J and the unit value is

Ju :
472

J 0.707 h J u

is found from table 9.1 Page

(9.6
)

Example of Finding A and J

Rectangles represent
throat areas. t = 0.707 h

Fig. 913

Example of Finding A and J

Note that t3 terms will be
very small compared to
b3 and d3
Usually neglected
Leaves JG1 and JG2 linear
in weld width
Can normalize by
treating each weld as a
line with unit thickness t
Results in unit second
polar moment of area, Ju
Since t = 0.707h,
J = 0.707hJu

Fig. 913

Common Torsional Properties of

Fillet Welds (Table 91)

Common Torsional Properties of

Fillet Welds (Table 91)

Stresses in Welded Joints in

Bending

Stresses in Welded Joints in

Bending (contd.)

Stresses in Welded Joints in

Bending (contd.)
Table 9 - 2 gives the location of the centroid and
the unit moment of inertia Iu for some common
weld shapes.
The moment of the inertia of the throat area is
found as:

Fillet Welds Loaded in Bending:

Summary

Fig. 917

Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (Table

92)

Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (Table

92)

Coursework
Exercises

Shigleys Mechanical Engineering

Design , R.C. Budynas & J.K Nisbett, 9th

Edition

Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

9.3 9. 4
9.7 9. 8
9.11 9. 12
9.15 9. 17
9.19 9. 20
9.23 9. 24