Chapter 4 f5

Chapter 4 Reproduction And
Growth
4.1 Gamete Formation
Chapter 4 : Reproduction and Growth

4.1 The Necessity for Organisms to Reproduce.
No organism can live forever. Hence, it is necessary for
organisms to reproduce to ensure the continuous existence of
their species
Reproduction is the process by which new individual organisms are produced.
Reproduction is necessary to ensure:

~ The continuous of the species
~ The passing down of an individuals genes to future generation.
Types Of Reproduction
There are two types: sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction:
~ is the production of offspring through the fusion of haploid
gametes to form a diploid zygote.
Asexual reproduction:
~ is the reproductive process in which new individuals are produced
without the formation of gametes.
~ does not involve the fusion of haploid gametes.
Types of Asexual
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Binary fission
Example
Budding
Bacteria, Amoeba,
Paramecium
Yeast, Hydra
Spore formation
Fungi, mosses
Vegetative reproduction
Onion, ginger, potato
Fragmentation
Sponges, flatworms,
starfish
Binary Fission
Budding
Spore Formation
Vegetative Reproduction
Fragmentation
The Necessity For The Formation Of Gametes

Sexual reproduction need the formation gametes is known as
gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis is divided into two : spermatogenesis and oogenesis
In human, male gametes called sperm (spermatozoa). Produced in the
testes while female gametes called ova. Produced in ovaries.
These gametes are produced through the process of meiosis.
The gametes are genetically different from the parent cells.
During fertilization, a sperm fuses with an ovum to form zygote.
The Necessity For The Formation Of Gametes

As the sperm and ovum have a haploid number of chromosomes (n= 23) each, the
zygote formed will have a diploid number of chromosomes (2n=46).
The zygote then divides through mitosis to produce millions of cells, each containing
46 chromosomes.
The formation of gametes ensures:
~ the diploid chromosomal number is maintained from one generation to
the next.
~ genetic variations in the offspring to give the better survival chances in an
ever changing environment.
~ the continuity of a species
Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth
Male Reproductive System
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Urinogenital duct
Scrotum
A special sac in which the
testis lie outside the main
body cavity at a temperature
below that of the rest of the
body, 2-3 0C lower than 370C
which is favorable to sperm
production.
Seminal
vesicle
Prostate
gland
Produces
seminal
fluid
Sperm duct / vas deferens

sends the sperms
to the urethra
Epididymis
keeps the sperms
Testis
production of sperms
Penis
The Human Male Reproductive System
Organs In The Male Reproductive System

Organ
Description and Function
Testis
Male gonad. Enclosed in external sac

called scrotum.
Production of sperms and sex hormones.
Seminiferous tubule
Fine, long coiled tubes arranged

compactly in testes.
The formation of sperms
Epididymis
Lies outside the testes. Sperm

maturation site and sperm storage.
Vas deferens (sperm duct)
Transport of sperm from the epididymis

to the urethra.
Seminal vesicle
Secrete a thick, clear fluid containing

nutrients for the sperm.
Secrete a milky white fluid to increase
the mobility of the sperm.
Prostate gland
Penis
Organ of sexual intercourse
Gamete Formation
Structure Of A Male Gamete (Sperm)

Head (acrosome)
nucleus
Middle piece
0.08mm
Tail
The Structure Of Human Sperm

Structure
Function
Nucleus
Carries genetic information
Acrosome
(specialized lysosome)
Contain hydrolytic enzymes

that help to digest the
protective layers surrounding
an ovum .Help the sperm
penetrate the ovum
Tail
For the sperm to swim toward

the ovum
Midpiece (containing
mitochondria in large
number)
Provided energy for the

movement of tail
Formation of
of sperm
sperm (spermatogenesis)
(spermatogenesis)
Formation
Structure Of The Testis

Each testis contains numerous coiled
tubules called seminiferous tubules
Interstitial cells
The
tubules
spermatogonia
Primary
spermatocytes
Germinal
epithelium
Convective
tissue
sperms
Transverse section of the testis

(Text Book page 124)
are
lined
by
The spermatogonia divide to give rise

to sperms.
The interstitial cells produce male sex
hormones
Spermatogenesis
The formation of the male gametes or sperm takes place in the

testes.
Each testis is made up of many small seminiferous tubules.

The seminiferous tubules are made up of two layers of germinal
epithelial cells and Sertoli cells.
The germinal epithelial cells are also known as primordial germ cells.
The Sertoli cells provide nutrients for the maturing sperms.
From puberty onwards, mature diploid cells at the outer layer of the
seminiferous tubules divide by meiosis.
2n
Growt
h 2n
Primordial germ cell

(2n)
Growt
h2n
2n
Schematic Diagram
2n
Cross Section Of A Seminiferous Tubule

In The Testis
Sertoli cell
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis
The epithelial germinal cells divide mitotically to produce
spermatogonia.
Each spermatogonium develops into a primary spermatocyte
(diploid matured gonad cells).
The primary spermatocyte undergoes Meiosis 1 to produce
secondary spermatocytes.
Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes Meoisis II to produce
spermatids.
The spermatids gets nutrients from Sertoli cells and undergo
differentiation and form spermatozoa (sperm).
Secondar
y
spermato
cyte
Female Reproductive System

Oviduct (fallopian tube)
Uterus
Fimbriae
Ovary
Cervix
Vagina
Secondary follicle
Primary follicle
Organ
Description and Function
Ovary
Production of ovum (female gamete) and

Production of female sex hormones (progesterone& estrogen)
Fallopian tube
(oviduct)
Extend from the ovaries to the uterus.

They have finger-like projections called fimbriae which surround
the ovaries. The combined action of the fimbriae and the beating
of cilia that line the oviducts help to move the ovum along.
Site for fertilisation; carries ovum from ovary to uterus.
Uterus
Thick walled, muscular organ

Site of implantation; holds the developing embryo and foetus.
Cervix
Secretion of mucus that enhances sperm movement into uterus.
Vagina
Organ of sexual intercourse; birth canal.
Vulva
External genital organ
Gamete Formation
Structure Of A Female Gamete (Ovum)

Follicle cell
Plasma membrane
Jelly-like coat
nucleus
cytoplasm
Ovum is a single cell

and larger than a
sperm.
It is round and
surrounded by a thick
plasma membrane, a
0.1mm
Female Reproductive Organ

Formation of Ovum (Oogenesis) / Ovarian Cycle
(1) Before Birth
Unlike male, oogenesis, the formation of oocytes, begins in the developing ovaries of a
female foetus before birth.
The germinal epithelial cells (also known as primordial germ cells) near the surface of an
ovary multiply by mitosis to form diploid oogonia (singular: oogonium).
The oogonia grow to form primary oocytes (diploid).
Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a layer of follicle cells that nourish the developing
oocyte and secrete female sex hormones. This combination is known as primary follicle.
As feotal development continues, all primary oocytes undergo Meiosis but stop at prophase
I of Meiosis I.
If pregnancy does not take place

(10 days) corpus albicans
secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle
Is surrounded by a layer
of follicle cells. This is
called PRIMARY follicles
Ovarian Cycle
Gamete Formation
Formation Of Ovum (Oogenesis)/ Ovarian cycle in ovary
Graafian follicle
about to burst open
and release ovum
Secondary follicle
Primary oocyte
Corpus luteum
formed from follicle
which has released
its ovum
Potential ova
Oogenesis (Schematic diagram)

(2) At Birth
A human female body has as many as two million primary oocytes but this
number is reduced to about 400 000 at puberty.
(3) Childhood
Ovaries inactive (primary follicle is dormant)
(4) From puberty to menopause (each month)
During the reproductive years, a few primary oocytes become active and
meiosis resumes.
However, only one primary follicle matures completely.
If pregnancy does not take

place (10 days) corpus albican
Secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle

During this time, the diploid primary oocyte completes Meiosis I to form two haploid cells
which are not equal in size.
~ the smaller cell : first polar body (n)
(soon degenerates and leaves the body)
~ the larger cell: secondary oocyte (n)
(contain most of the cytoplasm)
The secondary oocyte starts Meiosis II which progresses until Metaphase II.
The first polar body may also complete Meiosis II to form two polar bodies.
At this stage, the secondary oocyte, together with the layers of follicles cells around it is
now called secondary follicle.

Secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle

The secondary oocyte starts to grow in the follicle. The secondary follicle increases in size
and mature to form the Graafian follicle.
At intervals of approximately 28 days, the Graafian follicle merges with the wall of ovary.
The ovarian wall and the Graafian follicle then rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte or
egg into the Fallopian tube.
The release of the secondary oocyte from the ovary is known as ovulation. Ovulation takes
place in one of the ovaries once every 28 days.
Once a Graafian follicle has released a secondary oocyte, the remaining follicle develops
into a yellowish mass of cells called the corpus luteum.

Secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle

(a) If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte during fertilisation:
()Meiosis II will be completed. Two haploid cells of unequal size are formed.
()The larger cell : ovum (haploid, n)
()The smaller cell: second polar body (haploid, n)
()The nucleus of the sperm cell and the ovum then fuse to form a diploid zygote. (2n)
()This means a primary oocyte ultimately gives rise to a single haploid ovum (n) and
three haploid polar bodies (n). All polar bodies eventually denegerate.

Secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle

(b) If fertilization / pregnancy does not take place:
The corpus luteum begins to degenerate approximately after 10 days to
form corpus albicans.
If pregnancy takes place, the corpus luteum will not degenerate but will
continue to secrete estrogen and progesterone.
The whole process of the formation and development of ova is regulated
by the hormones.

secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle

(5) At Menopouse
By the age of 45-50 years, there are no primary which has the
ability to develop.
This stage is called menopause.

secondary
oocyte is
released/
burst
Graafian
follicle
Comparison Between Spermatogenesis And Oogenesis

Similarities :
Both happen in gonad or reproductive

organs.
Both produce haploid gametes that
involved in fertilisation.
Both involve the process of meiosis.
Both start with the primordial germ cells.
Differences
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Occur in testis
Occur in ovaries
Produces sperm
Produces ovum
Produces 4 active sperm
Produces 1 ovum dan 3 polar bodies.
Differentiation is involved to
produce sperm.
Differentiation is not involved
Cells are not surrounded by follicle
Cells are surrounded by follicle
Smaller in size
Bigger in size
The process is a lifelong process
The process stops at menopause
Begins after males reach puberty
Begins during the feotal stage
The formation of sperms occurs all

the time
The formation of ovum occurs during

every menstrual cycle

Growth
4.2 Role Of Hormones In The

Menstrual Cycle
4.2 The Role of Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle

Definition Of Menstruation:
is the breakdown of the lining of the uterus wall
and its discharge through the vagina with a small
amount of blood, epithelial tissues and mucus.
The menstrual cycle is under the control of the
hormone system and is necessary for reproduction.
Begins when a girl reach puberty (11-15 years)

Menstrual cycle:
~ is the monthly cycle of ovulation and menstruation in
the human female.
~ Mostly a typical cycle takes about 28 days.
~ The first day of womans menstruation is designated
as day one of the menstrual cycle.
~ The menstrual flow usually last for 3-5 days.
~ The menstrual cycle is controlled by a complex
interaction of hormones such as FSH, LH, oestrogen
and progesterone.
Menstrual Cycle

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and the Development of
Follicles, Ovulation and Changes in the Thickness of the
Endometrium.
At the beginning of menstruation, the Gonadotropin releasing hormones
(GnRH) secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior lobe of
pituitary gland to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which:
~ stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and
~ stimulates the follicle cells and the tissues of ovary to
secrete oestrogen.
During menstrual cycle, a primary follicle develops to form Graafian
follicle.
The development of follicles in the ovary stimulates the secretion of
oestrogen.
1-5
Menstru
al phase
6-13
Thickenein
g of
endometri
14
Ovulati
on
15-28
Vascularisation

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and
the Development of Follicles, Ovulation and
Changes in the Thickness of the Endometrium.
At the same time, oestrogen repairs and thickens
the endometrium (the lining of the uterus) to
prepare for the implantation of a zygote.
When the oestrogen reaches a particular level, it
stops the pituitary gland from producing FSH and
stimulates it to secrete another hormone called the
luteinising hormone (LH).
1-5
Menstru
al phase
6-13
Thickenein
g of
endometri
14
Ovulati
on
15-28
Vascularisation

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and
the Development of Follicles, Ovulation and
Changes in the Thickness of the Endometrium.
LH stimulates ovulation on the 14th day. A
secondary oocyte is released from the Graafian follicle
into the Fallopian tube. This process is ovulation.
After ovulation, the Graafian follicle that remains in
the ovary will form a corpus luteum.
1-5
Menstru
al phase
6-13
Thickenein
g of
endometri
14
Ovulati
on
15-28
Vascularisation

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and the
Development of Follicles, Ovulation and Changes in the
Thickness of the Endometrium.
Corpus luteum secretes another hormone called progesterone.
Progesterone serves to maintain the thickening of the
endometrium.
If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and
the level of progesterone falls. The endometrium
disintegrates and the endometrium begins to break down and
sloughs off.
The discarding of the tissues is accompanied by the loss of blood
and is shed as menstruation.

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and the
Development of Follicles, Ovulation and Changes in the
Thickness of the Endometrium.
If fertilisation occur, the corpus luteum will not degenerate.
The level of oestrogen and progesterone continue to rise.
The uterine walls continues to grow and nourish the embryo.
The corpus luteum continue to secrete oestrogen and
progesterone two to three months after fertlisation.
After that, the corpus luteum degenerates and placenta takes
over the production of these hormones until the baby is born.
Progesterone inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH. Therefore, the
menstrual cycle and menstruation do not occur during
pregnancy.

The Relationship between Hormonal Levels and the Development
of Follicles, Ovulation and Changes in the Thickness of the
Endometrium.
The level of the reproductive hormones are controlled by negative
feedback mechanism.
FSH : stimulates the production of oestrogen
: causing oestrogen level to rise

Estrogen : inhibits the production of FSH
: causing the FSH level to fall
Progesterone : inhibits the production of FSH
: FSH level to fall
: inhibits the development of another Graafian
follicle
Refer to diagram 4.3, Textbook page 128.
Role Of Hormones In The Menstrual Cycle

Summary of The Role Of Hormones In The Menstrual Cycle
During menstruation, the pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) which stimulates the development of follicles.
The primary follicle in the ovary develops into a Graafian follicle.
The development of follicles in the ovary stimulates the secretion of oestrogen.
Oestrogen repairs the uterine wall and causes the endometrium to thicken in preparation
for implantation.
When the oestrogen reaches a particular level, it stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete
another hormone called the luteinising hormone (LH).
LH stimulates ovulation on the 14th day. A secondary oocyte is released from the
Graafian follicle.
After ovulation, the Graafian follicle that remains in the ovary will form a corpus luteum.
Corpus luteum secretes another hormone called progesterone. Progesterone serves to
maintain the thickening of the endometrium.
If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and the level of
progesterone falls. The endometrium disintegrates and is shed as menstruation

The description of the roles of hormones in regulating the
menstrual cycle is shown in Diagram 1. The explanation is
given in Table 1 (below).
Days
Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

In the ovary
1-5
(menstrual
phase)
Anterior pituitary gland

release FSH and LH.
FSH stimulates the
development of follicle.
The developing follicle
secrete estrogen.
In the uterus
Menstruation occurs
The description of the roles of hormones in regulating the

menstrual cycle is shown in Diagram 1.
Days
Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

In the ovary
6-13
Graafian follicle matures
Endometrium is repaired and

thickens by estrogen
LH stimulates ovulation
Ovulation occurs
Endometrium continues to thickens
(thickening of
endometrium)
14 (ovulation)
In the uterus
15-24
Corpus luteum develops

(vascularization Progesterone level rises
Endometrium becomes thicker.

Many blood vessels develop in it.
25-28
Endometrium that is fully thickened

begins to break down.
phase)
Corpus luteum
degenerates if fertilization
does not take place
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

Is a group of symptoms related to menstrual cycle.
Occur in the week or two weeks before
menstruation.
PMS can affect menstruating women of any age. It is
also different for each woman.
It is linked to the changing hormones (progesterone
and estrogen) during the menstrual cycle.
The symptoms usually go away after menstruation
starts.
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

Example of the physical symptoms:
~ headache, fatigue, feel bloated, breast tenderness,

abdominal pain, sleep disturbances and appetite
changes including food cravings.
Example of emotional symptoms:
~ irritability, tension, depression, confusion, anxiety,

crying, oversensitivity, mood swings with alternating
anger and sadness.

Menopause
Is a normal change in a womans life when her menstruation
stops.
During menopause, a womans body slowly produces less
estrogen and progesterone.
Happens between the ages 45-55.
A woman has reached menopause when she has not had
menstruation for 12 months in a row.
Symptoms of menopause:
~ hot flushes, night sweats, sleeping problems,
osteoporosis, mood changes, weight gain and hair loss.

Growth
4.3 Early Development Of A

Zygote In Humans
The Process Of Ovulation and Fertilisation

1. During sexual intercourse, about 400 million sperms are ejaculated into womans
vagina.
2. The sperms swim up through the vagina, cervix, uterus and the Fallopian tube.
3. After about 24 hours, 6000 sperms reach the Fallopian tube. Half the sperm die.
4. After 30 hours, a few hundred sperms complete the journey.
5. A secondary oocyte bursts from the ovary and is collected by the Fallopian tube.
6. Sperm surround the egg. The first sperm that reaches the secondary oocyte will
penetrate into the egg membrane.
7. Upon entry of the sperm, the secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II. An ovum
and a polar body are formed.
The Process Of Fertilisation, Cell Division And Implantation

8. The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote.
The process is called fertilisation.
9. The fertilised egg is known as a zygote.
10. 30 hours (day 2) after fertilization, the zygote undergoes mitosis to form a
zygote with two cells.
11. Both cells then divide to form a zygote with four cells, eight cells and so on to
produce a solid ball of cells called morula. (day 3)
12. Eventually the growing mass of hundred of cells forms a fluid filled sphere
called blastocyst or blastula. It is hollow balls of cells which forms inner mass
cells and outer mass cells called trophoblast. (day 4-5)
13. The blastocyst embedded in the endometrium. Inner mass cells develops into
an embryo. The trophoblast will form the villi of placenta or trophoblast villi.
(day 7-8). This process is called implantation.
2
oocyte
The Early Development of Zygote

14. For the next eight weeks or so, the developing human is called an embryo.
15. The young embryo is nourished at first by nutrients absorbed directly from the
mothers endometrium.
16. But, as further development takes place, the placenta is formed.
17. From the ninth week of development until birth, the embryo is called foetus.
18. About 9 months of the development inside the uterus, the baby is ready to be
born.
Ectopic Pregnancy
In about 1 % of pregnancies, the blastocyst implants in the
Fallopian tube or abdominal cavity instead of in the wall of
uterus.
This is called ectopic pregnancy.
Ectopic pregnancy is dangerous to both feotus and mother.
Development and Functions of the Placenta in Foetal

Development
The trophoblast (now called the chorion) has finger like projections called
chorionic villi (before known as trophoblast villi or villus of placenta) which
project into the endometrium.
The chorion comes into contact with and gains nourishment from the uterine
blood vessels.
The blood vessels of the chorion and mother grow and expand together to
form the placenta.
The chorionic villi form the feotal side of the placenta while the uterine lining
forms the maternal side of placenta.
Uterus blood
vessel
Maternal
portion of
placenta
Feotal portion of
placenta (chorion)
Chorionic villus
containing feotal
capillaries
Early Development Of A Zygote In Humans

Villi Of Placenta In Wall Of Uterus
uterus
Placenta villus
Blood sinus in uterus
Embryonic capillary
ITeach Biology Form 5

The Relationship Between Blood Supply Of Embryo, Placenta And Uterus
Mothers
blood
O
xy
ge
na
te
d
(deoxygenated blood)
bl
oo
d
blood sinuses in uterus
placenta
Uterus wall
Capillary network
in placenta
Artery in umbilical cord

(deoxygenated blood)
Vein in umbilical cord

(oxygenated blood)
embryo
Placenta
Functions of the Placenta in Foetal Development

The placenta functions in the exchange of substances
between the foetus and the mother.
The foetus depends on the mother for nutrients and
respiratory gases, and to get rid of its waste products.
The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord

and contain two umbilical arteries and an umbilical vein.
Uterus blood
vessel
Maternal
portion of
placenta
Feotal portion of
placenta (chorion)
Chorionic villus
containing feotal
capillaries
Exchange Of Oxygen And Food From Uterus To

Placenta
Placenta is an organ by which the embryo is attached onto the uterus wall.
The placenta forms a selective barrier between the mothers blood and the foetal
blood.
It allows some substances to pass from the mother to the foetus. Eg : oxygen, and
nutrients ( mineral salts, glucose, amino acids, lipids and vitamins)
It also allows subtances to pass from the feotus to the mother. Eg: carbon dioxide
and nitrogenous waste materials. (urea)
However, the blood of the mother and feotus do not mix.
This is important to prevent exchange of some substances such as blood cells and
pathogens.
Exchange Of Oxygen And Food From Uterus To Placenta

If the blood is mixed, the higher pressure of the mothers blood would
damaged the delicate foetal blood vessels.
Agglutination can happen if the feotus is of a different blood group from the
mother.
The placenta secrete hormones that are essentials in pregnancy.
After the third month, it takes over the function of secreting progesterone and
oestrogen from corpus luteum.
Exchange Of Oxygen And Food From Uterus To Placenta

The placenta is joined to the foetus by the umbilical cord.
The umbilical artery transports substances (deoxygenated blood) from the
foetus to the placenta, the umbilical vein transports substances (oxygenated
blood) from the placenta to the foetus.
The mothers blood that flows into the placenta is rich in oxygen and
nutrients.
Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the mothers blood into the foetal blood.
They are transported to the foetus by the umbilical vein
The Importance of Having Separate Circulatory System

To prevent the action of maternal hormones and other chemicals in the
mothers blood from harming the developing feotus.
To ensure that the fine blood vessels of the feotus do not burst as a result of
higher pressure caused by the flow of the mothers blood.
To prevent certain harmful bacteria and their toxins from entering the feotus
(excluding HIV, Rubela virus, drugs, alcohol, caffeine and nicotine)
To prevent the mixing of possibly incompatible blood groups of the mother
and the feotus which may lead to agglutination and death.
The Formation of Twins

Two type of twins:
a. Identical twins and Siamese twins
b. Fraternal twins
a.Identical Twins and Siamese Twins

Identical Twins
Involves only one ovum and one sperm.
Only one zygote is formed and split into two halves by mitosis.
Each zygote develops into a foetus.
The two foetuses share the same placenta
They have the same genetic and physical characteristics and
the same sex.
Siamese Twins
If the splitting of the zygote stops halfway, while the embryo
continues to develop, the Siamese twin will be formed.
Siamese twin are joined at certain parts of their bodies.
Contribution Of Science And Technology To Human Reproduction
The Formation Of Twins

Identical Twins
One ovum and one sperm
One shared
placenta but has its
own umbilical cord
The Formation Of Siamese Twins
Siamese Twins
Identical twins that are not separated completely
These Siamese twins are joined at the abdomen
They can be separated by surgery if they dont

share vital organs such as heart, brain or lung
B. Fraternal Twins
Involve two ova and two sperms.
If two ova are released at the same time by the ovaries and each is fertilised by a sperm, two
zygotes will be formed and develops into an independent foetus.
The two foetuses have separate placentas and umbilical cord.
They have different genetic and physical characteristics , may be of different sexes.
The Formation Of Fraternal Twins
Two ova and

two sperms

Growth
4.4 Contribution Of Science And Technology To

Human Reproduction
4.4
The Contribution Of Science And Technology To Human

Reproduction
Introduction
Not all individuals are fertile.
A couple is usually considered infertile if they are unable to have any
children.
There are many causes of infertility and human reproduction
knowledge can help us to understand fertility and infertility.
Science and technology has helped many people to overcomes their
problems in reproduction.
The contribution of science and technology in human reproduction
are:
~ family planning
~ technique to overcome infertility
4.4
The contribution of science and technology

to human reproduction
A. Family planning
. is often used as a synonym for the use of birth control.
. It is most usually applied to the couple who wish to :
~ limit the number of children they have
~ control the timing of pregnancy
~ ensures the health of the mother (not affected by too many pregnancies)
. The method of contraception including:
a. Natural methods
b. Physical methods
c. Chemical methods
Prevent the release of

gametes
Prevent fertilisation and
implantation
Natural Methods
Physical Methods
Methods Of Contraception
Chemical Methods
Surgical Methods
A. Natural Methods
1. Withdrawal Method
.The penis is withdrawn from the vagina
before the release of semen or
ejaculation.
.Biological principle:
.Prevents sperms from entering the
vagina during ejaculation.
.An unreliable method because the
semen can leak out of the penis before
ejaculation.
A. Natural methods
2. Rhythm Method (Fertile Period)
A married couple avoid engaging in copulation
during the womans fertile period.
(period when the woman is about to ovulate. It is
most likely that an ovum is present in the Fallopian
tube.)
A married couple should only have sexual
intercourse during the safe period which
theoretically will not result in pregnancy.
Biological principle:
Prevents the sperm from fertilizing the ovum
b. Physical methods
1. Condom
(for male)
A condom is a device, usually made of latex,

that is used during sexual intercourse.
It is put on a man's erect penis and
physically blocks ejaculated semen from
entering the body of a sexual partner
Condoms are used to prevent pregnancy
and transmission of sexually transmitted
infections (gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV).
b. Physical methods
2. Intrauterine device (IUD) (for female)
A plastic coated copper coil that is fitted into
the uterus by a doctor.
Can be left in the uterus for approximately two
years.
A string attached to the lower end allows the
coil to be removed via the vagina.
Irritates the uterine lining
Thus, preventing the implantation of a zygote in
the endometrium.
B. Physical Methods
3. Diaphragm (for female)
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped rubber cap
Inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix.
Stops sperm from entering the uterus by
blocking the cervix.
Very reliable if fitted properly and used with
a spermicide.
B. Physical Methods
4. Femidom (for female)
Is a female condom
Stops sperm from entering the
uterus by blocking the cervix.
C. Chemical Methods
1. Oral contraceptive pills (for female)
Oral contraceptive pill, combination of oestrogen

and progestogen,
These hormones can prevent the formation of

follicles in the ovaries, and thus preventing
conception.
This pill is eaten every day for 21 days.
Prevents ovulation by inhibiting the secretion of FSH

and LH
So that follicle development does not occur.
C. Chemical Methods
2. Spermicides (for female)
Chemical cream, gel or foam that is applied to the vaginal
walls before copulation.
Contain chemical substance
Used together with diaphragm
The spermicides kills sperms ejaculated into the vagina
Create unsuitable environment / condition for sperms
Destroy (acrosome) membrane of sperm
Not reliable, as some sperms which are not killed will
enter the uterus.
C. Chemical Methods
3. Hormone Implant (for female)
Hormonal implants are a type of birth
control in the shape of a tiny tube that is
placed under the skin of a womans upper
arm.
The implant prevents pregnancy and is
effective for 3 years.
The implant is about the size of a toothpick
and made of a flexible plastic that contains
a type of progestin hormone medicine
called etonogestrel.
C. Chemical Methods
3. Hormone Implant (for female)

How does the hormonal implant work?
When placed under the skin, the tube(s) slowly
releases small amounts of a progesterone
hormone called etonogestrel.
This suppresses the pituitary gland which stops
the ovaries from releasing eggs. It must be
inserted by a health care provider.
Hormonal implants prevent pregnancy by:
Stopping the ovary from releasing an egg
Changing the cervical mucus (making it thicker)
to prevent sperm from reaching the egg
Changing the lining of the uterus
When is the hormonal implant

inserted?
Its usually inserted within the first
seven days of your menstrual
cycle or while you are on oral
contraceptives or Depo-Provera.
C. Chemical Methods
4. Depo- provera injection (for female)

Its made of a hormone similar
to progesterone
It's a shot that a doctor gives you in the arm
or buttocks.
Each shot works for up to 12 to 14 weeks,
but you must get the injection once every 12
weeks to get its full protection.
How Does It Work?
Depo-Provera starts to work immediately
after the first shot, if you get it within the first
5 days of your menstrual period.
D. Surgical Methods
Surgical methods prevent conception in more
permanent form.
1. Sterilisation of the male (vasectomy).
. Sperm ducts ( vas deferens) are tied and cut in
a surgical operation.
. This is the tube that takes sperm from the
testes to the penis.
. Biological principle:
.Once the vas deferens is cut, sperm can no
longer get into the semen that is ejaculated
during sex.
.Fertilisation will not take place.
D. Surgical Methods
2. Sterilisation of the female
(Bitubal ligation / tubectomy)
Both the Fallopian tubes are cut and tied
in an operation.
A released ovum cannot reach the part of
the Fallopian tube where sperms are
present.
Thus, the sperms cannot fertilise the
ovum
Moral Issues Related To The Application Of

Science And Tecnology In Contraception
a. Encourage premarital sex.
b. The use of IUD prevent implantation of
blastocyst, which is considered a new life,
is also questionable.
B. Techniques To Overcome Sterility

1.
Sperm Bank
Sperms from a donor are frozen and kept in a sperm bank

The sperm bank provides an immediate source of sperms
which can be used to help married couples whose sterility is
caused by inability of sperms to function.
2. Artificial
Insemination
Sperms are taken from the husband (has low sperm

count) and injected directly into the fallopian tube of the
wife during the ovulation period
Helps the sperm to fertilise the secondary oocyte and this
increases the chances of fertilisation

Means fertilisation that takes place outside the
body
3. In vitro
Fertilisation (IVF)
Is used if the Fallopian tubes are blocked or

damaged
Secondary oocytes removed from the ovaries
using laparoscope and placed in a laboratory
dish that contains culture solution and sperms
Fertilisation occurs and the zygote transferred
to the uterus at the eight cells stage for
implantation
Test-tube Baby
Louise Brown was born on July

25, 1978, in England
She was the world's first test

tube baby
The result of a now-common

procedure called in vitro
fertilization (IVF).

A) Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
4. Intra
Fallopian
Transfer
Involve the transfer of gametes into the Fallopian

tube where fertilization can takes place.
B) Zygote Intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)
The zygote that is formed after fertilisation in a
laboratory dish is transferred into the Fallopian
tube.
5. Embryo
Transfer
The donor of the secondary oocyte is injected

with the sperms of the sterile woman husband
through artificial insemination
After fertilisation, the embryo in the donors
uterus is transferred into sterile womans uterus.

6. Surrogate
mother
The surrogate mother receives the sperms of

a man whose wife is sterile through artificial
insemination.
The woman becomes pregnant and once the
baby is born, the baby will be handed to the
couple.
7. Cloning
The nucleus of an fertilized ovum is replaced

with the nucleus of body cell from person to
be cloned.
The reconstituted ovum is stimulated to divide and
then implanted into the uterus of a surrogate
mother who will give birth to a clone of the body
cell donor.
1) Technique to solve infertility

A) Sperm bank
Sperms from donors can be kept alive in
cold storage in a sperm bank.
These sperm can be used for artificial
insemination by couple having sterility
problems.
Moral issues sperm from high
achievers and physically attractive
donors are preferred over less
favourable ones.
B. Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination is when sperm is placed into a

female's uterus (intrauterine), or cervix (intracervical)
using artificial means rather than by natural
copulation.
Enables a female who has no husband or husband is
sterile to have baby, using sperm from other male
obtained from the sperm bank.
C. In vitro fertilization
- means outside the body.
- used to overcome sterility caused by
blockage in the Fallopian tubes.
- The ovum placed in Petri dish
containing the husbands sperms and
filled with culture medium and is incubated for
a few hours.
- fertilisation occurs in Petri dish. The
embryo formed is then implanted into
females uterus by using catheter and embryo
continues with its development.
- the baby born by this technique is
call a test-tube baby.
D. Surrogate Mother
Practice in which a woman (the surrogate
mother) bears a child for a couple unable to
produce children, usually because the wife is
infertile or unable to carry a pregnancy to
term.
The surrogate is impregnated either:
1) through artificial insemination (usually
with the sperm of the husband)
2) or through the implantation of an embryo
produced by in vitro fertilization.
Sexually transmitted disease

Sexually transmitted disease (STD) are diseases that spread through sexual contact.
STD
Chlamydia
Syphilis
Gonorhea
AIDS
Causative Agents
Bacteria
Bacteria
(treponema
pallidum)
Bacteria
(Neisseria
gonorrhoeae)
HIV
Hepatitis B, Genital
Virus
STD can
herpes,
genital
wardsis:
be avoided.
The safest
to avoid sexual contact before marriage and
for both partners in a marriage to remain faithful
Treatment
Antibiotics
Antibiotics
Antibiotics
No treatment
(Death)
No treatment (Death)
a. Syphilis
Syphilis is a STD caused by spiralshaped spirochete bacterium,
Treponema pallidum.
Syphilis can be treated with antibiotics
(penicillin).
If not treated, syphilis can cause
serious effects such as damage to the
heart, aorta, brain, eyes, and bones.
b. Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhea is the most common STD
in the world and is caused by
bacterium, Neisseria gonorrheae.
Symptoms : pain during urination and
discharge of pus from the penis or
vagina.
Treatment : antibiotics
(sulphonamides, penicilin)
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a collection of symptoms and infection
resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in humans.
Once the immune system weakens, a person infected with HIV can develop
the following symptoms:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Lack of energy
Weight loss
Frequent fevers and sweats
Persistent skin rashes or flaky skin
Short-term memory loss
Mouth, genital, or anal sores from herpes infections.
c. AIDS (cont)

Growth
4.5 Sexual Reproduction In

Flowering Plants
4.5 Sexual Reproduction In Flowering

Plants
Introduction:
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants (Angiosperms)
takes place in flower.
Other types of plants may not have flowers or their
reproductive structures are not easily seen.
It is this special structure that has made the
Angiosperms the most successful group of plants on
the surface of the Earth.
4.5 Sexual Reproduction In Flowering Plants

Structure of flower:
There are four main flower parts:
~ sepals ~ stamens
~ petals ~ carpels / pistil
Most flowers are bisexual (have male and female reproductive
organ at a same plant)
Some are unisexual e.g. papaya plant
Sexual Reproduction In Flowering Plants

Longitudinal Section Of A Typical Flower
petals
stigma
anther
stamen
filament
Male
reproductive
organ
style
Pistil / carpel
Female
reproductive
organ
ovary
ovule
Receptacle
Sepal
Pedicel
Refer textbook, Figure 4.7

page 137
Function Each Part Of The Flower

Part
Function
Sepal
Protect the flower when it is still a

bud
Petal
Big and brightly coloured

to attract insects or birds for
pollination.
Pedicel
Flower stalk
Supports the flower in the best
position for pollination
Receptacle
The part where the flower sit on
Function Each Part Of The Flower

Part
Stamen (male structure)
Carpel / Pistil
(female structure)
Function
Consist of a filament and anther.
Anther produced pollen grains which
contain male gametes.
Filament support the anther.
Consists of stigma, style, ovary and the
ovule.
Stigma has large surface to receive the
pollen grain.
The style connects the stigma to the
ovary and bears one or more ovules.
The ovule contains the female gamete or
egg cell.
Formation of Pollen Grains

Structure Of The Anther
anther
Pollen mother cells(2n)

Pollen sacs
Pollen grains are produced in the anther.

Each anther has 4 pollen sacs.
Each pollen sac contains hundreds of pollen mother cells or
microsporocyte which are diploid (2n).
The Formation Of Pollen Grains

Tube
nucleus
Mitosis
Meiosis
Pollen
mother
cell(2n)
Tetrad (n)
Pollen
grains
Generative
nucleus
Each pollen mother cell (2n) divides through meiosis to produce 4 haploid
cells called microspores (n)
A group of 4 haploid cells is called a tetrad.
Each tetrad of haploid cells separates and are randomly located in the
pollen sac. Each cell in the tetrad will develop into a pollen grain.
The haploid nucleus in each microspore divides through mitosis to
produce two nuclei -the generative nucleus and the tube nucleus
The Formation Of Pollen Grains

Tube
nucleus
Generative
nucleus
Pollens
The cell in the tetrad develops into distinctive shape and forms a thick
resistant wall. The structure now is called pollen.
When the pollens are mature, the pollen sacs break open releasing the
pollen grains.
Development of Ovule
1. The ovule develops from ovarian tissue. In the ovule, one
diploid cell develops to form an embryo sac mother
cell (megaspore mother cell) (2n).
Formation
Of
Embryo
Sac In
The Ovule
2. The embryo sac mother cell divides through meiosis to form 4

haploid megaspores cells.
3. Three of these haploid cells degenerate while the remaining
one develop and enlarge to form the embryo sac or
megaspore (n).
4. The nucleus in the embryo sac divides by mitosis 3 times to
produce eight haploid nuclei, with four nuclei at each end of
the embryo sac.
Nucellus
(central mass of
parenchyma tissue inside
the ovule)
Embryo sac
mother cell (2n)
Megaspore or
embryo sac (n)
Diagram : Longitudinal section of an ovule
The Formation Of The Embryo Sac
Embryo sac
mother cell
(2n)
ovule
3 antipodal cells
Embryo sac or megaspore (n)
meiosis
mitosis
3 cells
degenerate
mitosis
mitosis
..
2 polar
nuclei
egg cell
2 synergid cells
* Refer figure 4.9 page 138
5. One nucleus from each end of the embryo sac moves to the
centre and are called polar nuclei.
Formation
Of Embryo
Sac In The
Ovule
6. At one end are 3 antipodal cells that will degenerate.
7. One of the 3 haploid cells at the other end of the embryo

sac will become the egg cell. The other two haploid cells
are the synergid cells.
Embryo sac
mother cell
(2n)
ovule
3 antipodal cells
meiosis
mitosis
3 cells
degenerate
mitosis
mitosis
..
2 polar
nuclei
egg cell
2 synergid cells
8. Only the polar nuclei and the egg cell are involved in
fertilisation. The other degenerate.
Formation
Of Embryo
Sac In The
Ovule
9. The nucellus (central mass of parenchyma tissues inside the

ovule) is surrounded by two layers of cells known as the seed
coat or integument.
10. A little opening called the micropyle at one end allows the
entry of water during germination.
Embryo sac
mother cell
(2n)
ovule
3 antipodal cells
meiosis
mitosis
3 cells
degenerate
mitosis
mitosis
..
2 polar
nuclei
egg cell
2 synergid cells
Development Of Embryo Sac
Double Fertilisation In A Flowering Plant

Generative nucleus
Tube nucleus
Pollen grain
Stigma
Style
Male gametes
Tube nucleus
Pollen tube
ovule
Embryo sac
2 polar nuclei
Male gamete
Egg cell
Male gamete
ovary
The Formation Of The Pollen Tube And Double

Fertilisation
The landing of a pollen grain on the stigma initiates the
fertilisation process.
The epidermal cells of stigma secrete sugar (sucrose)
solution to stimulates the pollen grain to germinate.
A pollen tube then grows out of the pollen grain. (Figure
4.10, page 139).
The pollen tube grows downwards and secretes
enzymes to digest the surrounding tissues.
The direction of growth of the pollen tube is controlled by
the tube nucleus which is positioned at the tip of the
pollen tube.
The Germination Of Pollen Grains

Male
gametes
Generative nucleus
Tube nucleus
Pollen tube
Refer Figure 4.8

page 137 and
Photograph
4.1 page 138
Tube
nucleus
During germination, the generative nucleus will divide to form two male
gametes (male nuclei) in the pollen tube.
Germinating Pollen Grain
The Formation Of The Pollen Tube And Double

Fertilisation
During the growth of the pollen tube, the generative
nucleus which follows closely behind the tube nucleus
divides by mitosis to form two male nuclei (n) which
become the male gametes.
The male gametes follow the tube nucleus at the tip of the
pollen tube.
The pollen tube grows down the style into the ovary and
enters an ovule through a tiny opening called micropyle.
Upon reaching the micropyle, the tube nucleus
degenerates
The tip of the pollen tube bursts open and leaving a
passage for the male nuclei to enter the embryo sac.
The Germination Of Pollen Grains

Male
gametes
Generative nucleus
Tube nucleus
Pollen tube
Refer Figure 4.8

page 137 and
Photograph
4.1 page 138
Male
nucleus
During germination, the generative nucleus will divide to form two male
gametes (male nuclei) in the pollen tube.
The Formation Of The Pollen Tube And

Double Fertilisation
During the double fertilisation (occurs within the ovule):
One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to
form a diploid zygote. (2n). This is the first fertilisation.
The other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei, forming a triploid
nucleus (3n)
The triploid nucleus then divides to form nutritive tissue, the endosperm. This is
the second fertilisation.
Because there are two fertilisations, the process is known as double
fertilisation.
The synergid cells and the antipodal cells degenerate.
Double Fertilisation
Development Of The Zygote After Fertilisation (Formation of Fruits and Seeds)

After fertilization, the diploid zygote divides by mitosis to form two cells, a
larger cell develop to suspensor, the smaller cell develop to embryo.
The embryo develops and differentiates to form plumule (forms the shoot),
radicle (forms the root) and one or two cotyledons.
The triploid nucleus also divides rapidly through mitosis to form the
endosperm. Endosperm provides nutrients for developing embryo.
In dicotyledons, food and nutrients are stored in the cotyledon. In
monocotyledons, food and nutrients are stored in the endosperm.
Food stored is used for the development of embryo and seed germination.
Refer to textbook diagram 4.12 page 141
Outer
Flesh of fruit
Development Of The Zygote After Fertilisation (Formation of Fruits and Seeds)

The outer integument of the ovule becomes the seed coat or testa. The
seed coat acts as a protective layer for the seed.
The inner integument becomes the tegmen which is a thin membranes
under the testa.
The ovule with the seed coat is now a fully developed seed
While the seed develops, the ovary becomes a fruit.
The ovary wall develops into the outermost skin and form flesh of the fruits
known as pericarp.
Other floral parts together with the stigma and style, wither away leaving a
scar on the ovary wall.
Outer
Flesh of fruit
Importance Of Double Fertilization For The Survival Of Flowering Plants

The formation of the diploid zygote during double fertilisation
enables the hereditary material of the parents to be passed
down to their offspring for the continuity of the plant species.
The triploid nucleus develops into an endosperm. The
endosperm supplies food to the developing embryo during
seed germination. This ensures the seed can live for a long
time even under unfavourable dry condition and will
germinate successfully into new plant.
The fruit formed after double fertilisation, protect the seed
and helps in the dispersal of the seeds to new places. This
ensures the survival.

Growth
4.6 Understanding Growth

In Multicellular Organisms
The Necessity of Growth in Organisms

Growth is a process which results in:
An increase in the number of cells
An increase in cell size
Cell differentiation and specialization of an
organism.
acquired by an organism in its development.
is a permanent and irreversible process.

Differentiation:
~ the process where cells grow, change shape and adapt
themselves to carry out specific functions.
~ cells differentiate and become more specialized in
order
to perform specific tasks more efficiently.
~ eg: cells which have become specialized to carry out

Specialisation:
~ the process of change and adaptation that a cell
undergoes to give it special structures and specific
functions.
~ it gives rise to various types of cells in a multicellular
organism.
~ eg: nerve cells:
have long, thin fibers called axons which carry nerve impulses
Understanding Growth In Multicellular Organisns
Growth
There are 3 phases of growth:
Cell division
Results in an
increase in
number of cells
Cell enlargement
(elongation)
Cell
differentiation
Results in an
increase in volume
of the cells
Where the cells

change in form and
perform specialised
function
(In plant)
(Identical to
original cell)
(taking in water and

nutrients into the cell by
osmosis
and
diffusion)
(nutrients
are
used in
the building up of
protoplasm leading to an
increase in cell size)
(water accumulates in the vacuoles of plant cells
causing the primary wall to stretch)
Stages Of Growth Development At The Shoot Tip And

Root Tip In Specific Zones
Zone of cell division

The apical meristem divide actively through mitosis.
The meristem cells are small in size, with large nucleus,
several small vacuoles and thin cell wall.
Zone of elongation
The cells elongate and enlarge to increase in size by absorbing
water into the vacuoles through osmosis.
The vacuoles become bigger cause the primary wall to stretch.
Hence, the cell mass increases.
Stages Of Growth Development At The Shoot Tip And

Root Tip In Specific Zones
Zone of differentiation
The cells undergo differentiation to form specialised cells that
will carry out specific functions.
Example : xylem tissues
~ Modifications:
Long, hollow and continuous tubes
~ Function:
Suited to transport water and mineral salts efficiently
Growth Zone At The Root Tip

Xylem vessel
Zone of
differentiation
Cells
elongate
Cells undergoing
mitosis
Zone of
elongation
Zone of
division
Zone of cell division
Apical meristem
Zone of elongation
Zone of differentiation
Phloem
Permanent tissues
Axillary
bud
Growth Zone In The Shoot Tip

Growth
4.7 Understanding The

Growth Curve
Parameters Commonly Used To Determine

Growth
Increase in size
Increase in volume
Dry mass
Fresh mass
Parameters Used To Determine Growth

1) Increase in size / volume:
Refers to the length or height of an organism that is measured
over a period of time.
Advantage: - easy and quick to carry out
- can use the same organism, no need to kill the

organism
Disadvantage: - measures growth in one dimension only.
- does not take into account growth in other

dimension such as diameter and weight.

2) Dry mass:
Refers to the mass of an organism after all the water has been
removed from its body.
Advantages:
Accurate measurement of the amount of organic matter
Accurate measurement of growth.
Disadvantages:
The organisms have to be killed
A large number of organisms are needed to measure growth change.
Therefore, growth of the same organism cannot be taken.

3) Fresh mass:
Refers to the mass of living organisms that is measured without
removing water from the body.
Advantages:
Easy and convenient
No need to kill the organism
The growth of the organism can be measured continuously.
Disadvantages:
Not very accurate
Because measurement of growth is affected by the amount of water
present in the body.
Understanding The Growth Curve
Growth Curves are obtained by plotting the parameters for growth

measurement such as length, height, fresh mass or dry mass against time
The General Growth Curve An S-Shaped (Sigmoid)Curve

Mass
a :At first, growth tends to be slow.

b : Growth speeds up, growing at
an exponential rate.
c : Slows down as adult size is
reached.
Time
d : Stops altogether when it has

reached adult size.
The Growth Curve Of Human Being Sigmoid growth Curve

(Continuous Growth)
Body Mass
Time
(years)
AB : Embryo and foetal

stage
Growth rate is low
BC : toddler / infant
stage
Growth rate is very rapid

for boys and girls
CD : childhood
GR is slower. From age 4,

GR is slightly higher for
boys than girls
DE : puberty /adolescent
stage
GR very fast. In the earlier

phase, girl has higher GR.
Later, boys grow faster.
GR is zero. Maturity reached.
EF : adult stage
GR is negative. Size start to decrease.

Muscles starts to degenerate.
F : ageing/ senescence
stage
The Growth Curve Of Insect - Discrete Growth (is a series of steps)
Body Length
Increases in size due to moulting /ecdysis

(shedding of exoskeleton from time to time) by
sucking in air.
Time
Adult
Nymph / Instar
Ecdysis / Moulting

Growth
4.8 Primary And Secondary

Growth In Plants
4.8 Primary And Secondary Growth In Plants

Plants exhibit a growth pattern unlike animals.
They have two basic patterns:
limited growth
unlimited growth

Types of Growth in Plants:
1) In an annual plants:
(plants that grow for a season or year only and then die):
~ Growth is limited
~ During the period of maximum growth, the plant matures and
reproduces, bearing flowers and fruits.
~ After a period of maximum growth, there is a period of negative
growth before the plant dies. (Textbook pg 150, Phot.4.3)
~ This growth is also known as primary growth.
~ Example of plants:
1) Monocotyledones (corn plant)
Diagram : Growth Curve Of An Annual Plant

m
u
im
x
Ma
o
gr
h
t
w
Negative growth
Die
Begonia Species

1) In an annual plants:
(Textbook pg 149, Figure 4.18)
growth curve of an annual plant
~ The growth curve shows a normal sigmoid curve
~ Except at a certain point : decrease in weight / dry
mass due to:
1) respiration
2) depletion of stored food in the seed
Diagram : Growth Curve Of An Annual Plant
Decrease in dry mass

2) In Perennials plants:
(grow continuously throughout their lives)
~ Show unlimited growth.
~ They have a growth curve which is a series of
continuous
sigmoid curves adding on to one another. (never flatten
out)
Refer : Textbook pg 149, Figure 4.19
~ Each sigmoid curve represents a years growth.
Diagram : Growth Curve Of A Perennial Plant

s
r
a
e h
y
A owt
gr
o
t
e
u
d f
p
i g o ts
d
t i n r ui
h
ls ig edd & f
A sh ves
lea

2) In Perennials plants:
~ This growth is known as secondary growth
~ Takes place only after primary growth is
completed.
~ Examples of plants: oak, rubber tree, meranti,
cengal (Msian hardwood)

1) PRIMARY GROWTH:
Is the first form of growth.
The growth processes that occur after germination in
all plants.
Takes place in the apical meristem tissues in the
apex of the shoot and root.
A plant undergoes a rapid cell division in the apical
meristem, cell elongation and cell differentiation.
Results in an increase in the length of the stem and
root.

1) PRIMARY GROWTH:
This lead to form the cortex, primary phloem and
primary xylem in the vascular bundle.
Their main function:
~ transport water and minerals from the roots to the
leaves
~ transport products of photosynthesis from the leaves
to
Types Of Growth In Plants

Primary Growth
Limited growth (annual plants)
After a period of maximum growth, the plants
go through negative growth before dying.
Example : most monocotyledons and
herbaceous dicotyledons plants

2) SECONDARY GROWTH:
The growth processes that occurs after primary
growth.
Examples: woody, shrubs, perennial plants,
some monocotyledon plants ( Aloe sp. Agave
sp.)
A plant undergoes cell division in the lateral
meristem of both the stem and the root.
Secondary growth results in the increase in
Aloe sp.
Agave sp.
Cordyline sp.
Draceana sp.
Yucca sp.

2) SECONDARY GROWTH:
Two types of lateral meristems:
1) Vascular cambium : Found between the vascular tissues
(xylem and phloem tissues)
Vascular cambium divides to produce secondary phloem
and xylem.
2) Cork cambium : Below the epidermis of the stem
Cork cambium divides to produce secondary cortex and
cork.
Vascular Cambium, 20 xylem and 20 phloem in the dicotyledonous stem
Cork cambium, 20 cortex and cork in the dicotyledonous stem
20 cortex
Types Of Growth In Plants

Secondary Growth
Unlimited growth (Perennials plants)
The growth curve shows a series of
continuous sigmoid curves.
Example : Woody plants such as teak, oak.
Secondary Growth In Dicotyledon

Plants
Secondary growth in
dicotyledon plants involves
the vascular
cambium that is
between the xylem
and phloem tissues
in the vascular
bundle
the cork cambium

that is below the
epidermis
Secondary Growth In Dicotyledonous Stem

The vascular cambium cells in between the primary xylem and primary
phloem divide by mitosis to produce two layers of cells.
The cells in the inner differentiate to form secondary xylem while the outer
layer forms the secondary phloem.
The wall of the secondary xylem become thickened with lignin to give
mechanical support.
The primary xylem is pushed towards the pith while the primary phloem is
pushed towards the epidermis.
Secondary Growth in the Stem of a Dicotyledonous Plant

Epidermis
The addition of secondary tissues cause the epidermis to be stretched

sideways and split
In a mean time, the cork cambium divides actively to form an outer layer of
cork cells and an inner secondary cortex.
The cork replaces the split and cracked epidermis.
The walls of the cork cells contain a waxy substance called suberin which
is impermeable to water.
Secondary Growth in the Stem of a Dicotyledonous Plant

Epidermis
20 cortex

In temperate climate, the growth rate of woody plants is not the same
throughout the year.
During spring and early summer, growth rate is rapid because of
favourable conditions (light and rain)
Therefore, vascular cambium more active. The xylem vessels that are
formed are large and thin walled, suited for conduction of large quantities of
water for photosynthesis.
In late summer and autumn, growth slows down and the cambium is less
active. Fewer cells are produced.
The cells are smaller and have thicker walls (lignified to provide additional
support to the plant)
During winter, the cambium remains dormant.

Because of this difference in growth rate, rings of light wood (wood formed
in spring is lighter) and dark wood (wood formed in autumn is darker)
appear in the cross section of the stem.
A ring of light and dark wood represents a years growth.
The age of a tree can be determined by counting the number of light and
dark rings in the stem. These rings are known as annual rings.
Trees in tropical countries, however, do not show any distinctive annual
growth rings because there is no seasonal climate.
Secondary Growth In Dicotyledonous Root

Secondary growth also takes place in the roots of plants.
The vascular cambium divides by mitosis to form a cambium ring.
The cambium cells divide to produce secondary xylem on the inner side and
secondary phloem on the outer side.
As in the stem, the growth of secondary vascular vessels compresses both
the primary xylem and phloem.
The pericycle cells divide to form a cork cambium.
Cork cambium that is found just below the epidermis produces cork cells
Cork cells protect the root tissues
Diagram : Secondary Growth in the Root of a

Dicotyledonous Plant
Secondary Growth In Monocotyledonous Plants

Monocotyledonous and herbaceous plants do not have secondary growth.
However, the exception to this rule is seen in certain desert plants
E.g. Aloe sp., Agave sp., Cordyline sp., Dracaena sp. and Yucca sp.
These plants are perennials and exhibits secondary growth.
The vascular cambium of these plants is found in the cortex of the stems.
Secondary Growth In Monocotyledonous Plants

The cambium cells divide to form new cells.
The new cells formed on the inside differentiate to become primary vascular
tissues (xylem & phloem)
While those formed towards the epidermis become the secondary
vascular tissue.
However, the roots do not show secondary thickening / growth
Secondary Growth in the Stem of

Monocotyledonous Plant.
Epidermis
Pith
The Importance of Primary Growth

Increases the length or height of the plant to reach
sunlight as well as increases the length of roots to
search for water.
The primary xylem that is formed helps to transport
water and minerals while the primary phloem helps
to transport product of photosynthesis.
It provides support because the walls of the xylem
tissue are thickened with lignin.
The Importance of Secondary Growth

Increases the diameters and girth of the plant
stems and roots for additional mechanical support.
This is important because an increase in height of a
tree must be accompanied by an increase in girth.
So the tree will be stable.
Produces secondary xylem called wood to support
and strengthen the growing plant.
Produces more secondary xylem and phloem to
accommodate the increase in demand for transport
of water, minerals and organic nutrients.
The Importance of Secondary Growth

Produces new xylem and phloem tissues to replace old
and damaged ones.
Produces a thick, tough bark which:
1) reduces the evaporation of water from the surface
of the stem.
2) protects the plants against the attacks of insects and
parasitic fungi
3) guards plant body against extremes in external
environment
Increases the opportunity to produce seed and grows
as plants that undergo secondary growth live longer.
Comparison between Plants that Experience

Secondary Growth and Those That Do Not
Differences in terms of
Types of plants and

tissues
Plants that undergo 20

growth
Plants that do not

undergo 20 growth
Mostly dicotyledonous
plants
Mostly monocotyledonous
plants
Have lateral meristems
Do not have lateral

meristems
Have annual growth rings
Do not have annual

growth rings

Differences in terms of
Lifespan

growth
Plants that do not

undergo 20 growth
Have long lifespan and

are able to live for many
years
Have short lifespan
Reproduce/ grow
throughout their lifespan
Reproduce/ grow for one

or two season only

Differences in terms
of
Survival chances

growth
Plants that do not undergo 20

growth
Are usually taller and bigger
Are usually shorter and smaller
Have woody tissues
Do not have woody tissues
Have thick bark to protect

inner tissues
Do not have thick bark to

protect inner tissues
Have bigger and more xylem

and phloem tissues to provide
additional strength and
support to the stems and roots
Have smaller and less xylem

and phloem tissues to provide
additional strength and support
to the stems and roots
In a tropical rainforest, plants

have more access to sunlight
In a tropical rainforest, plants

have lesser access to sunlight

Differences in terms
of
Economic importance

growth
Plants that do not

undergo 20 growth
Tree trunks have high

commercial value as the
materials are long lasting
Trunks have no commercial

value
Need no replanting
Need replanting
Widely used in wood

industry
Less used in wood industry
Have potential as timber
Not important in timber

industry
Economic Importance of Plants that

Undergo Secondary Growth
Have high commercial value as they produces
valuable timber.
Have woody parts that are strong and hard, suitable
as beams for buildings, furniture and so on
The presence of the medullary rays is an attractive
feature in furniture like dining table and decorative
items.
The wood and bark of some plants like merawan
(Hopea sp.) and meranti produces useful resin and
oils.
Economic Importance of Plants that

Undergo Secondary Growth
Hibiscus sp. and Bougainvillaea sp. are valuable as
ornamental plants in gardens and parks.
Durian and mango trees produce large quantities of

fruits for local consumption and export.
THE END

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Chapter 4 Reproduction And

4.1 Gamete Formation

Chapter 4 : Reproduction and Growth

Reproduction is the process by which new individual organisms are produced.

Reproduction is necessary to ensure:

There are two types: sexual and asexual reproduction

Onion, ginger, potato

The Necessity For The Formation Of Gametes

The Necessity For The Formation Of Gametes

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Male Reproductive System

Sperm duct / vas deferens

The Human Male Reproductive System

Organs In The Male Reproductive System

Description and Function

Male gonad. Enclosed in external sac

Fine, long coiled tubes arranged

Lies outside the testes. Sperm

Vas deferens (sperm duct)

Transport of sperm from the epididymis

Secrete a thick, clear fluid containing

Organ of sexual intercourse

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Structure Of A Male Gamete (Sperm)

The Structure Of Human Sperm

Carries genetic information

Contain hydrolytic enzymes

For the sperm to swim toward

Provided energy for the

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Structure Of The Testis

Transverse section of the testis

The spermatogonia divide to give rise

The formation of the male gametes or sperm takes place in the

Each testis is made up of many small seminiferous tubules.

Primordial germ cell

Cross Section Of A Seminiferous Tubule

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Female Reproductive System

Description and Function

Production of ovum (female gamete) and

Extend from the ovaries to the uterus.

Thick walled, muscular organ

Secretion of mucus that enhances sperm movement into uterus.

Organ of sexual intercourse; birth canal.

External genital organ

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Structure Of A Female Gamete (Ovum)

Ovum is a single cell

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take place

Chapter 4 Reproduction And Growth

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take place

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take place

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take place

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take

Female Reproductive Organ

If pregnancy does not take