Refraction Through Lenses & Optical Instruments5

Lenses and Optical
Instruments
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Units
Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing
The Thin Lens Equation; Magnification
Combinations of Lenses
Lensmakers Equation
Cameras: Film and Digital
The Human Eye; Corrective Lenses
Magnifying Glass
Telescopes
Compound Microscope
Aberrations of Lenses and Mirrors

We have learnt how light travels in
different materials, and we are now ready
to learn how we can control the direction
of light rays.
We use lenses to control the direction of
light. When light enters a lens, the light
rays bend or change direction.

A lens is any transparent material (e.g.
glass) of an appropriate shape that can
take parallel rays of incident light and
either converge the rays to a point or
diverge the rays from a point.
Lenses are commonly used to form
images
by
refraction
in
optical
instruments,
such
as
eyeglasses,
cameras, telescopes, and microscopes.
You also have lenses in your eyes!

Thin lenses are those whose thickness is small
compared to their radius of curvature. They
may be either converging (a) or diverging (b).
A typical thin lens consists of a piece of

glass or plastic, ground so that each of
its two refracting surfaces is a segment
of either a sphere or a plane.

Some lenses will focus light rays to a single
point. These lenses are called converging or
concave lenses.
Other lenses spread out the light rays so that it
looks like they all come from the same point.
These lenses are called diverging or convex
lenses.
Lenses change the direction of light rays by
refraction. They are designed so that the image
appears in a certain place or as a certain size.

Lens properties:
The principal axis is the line which runs horizontally straight
through the optical centre of the lens. It is also sometimes called the
optic axis.
The optical centre (O) of a convex lens is usually the centre point
of the lens. The direction of all light rays which pass through the
optical centre, remains unchanged.

Lens properties:
The focus or focal point of the lens is the position on the principal
axis where all light rays which run parallel to the principal axis
through the lens converge (come together) at a point. Since light
can pass through the lens either from right to left or left to right,
there is a focal point on each side of the lens (F1 and F2), at the
same distance from the optical centre in each direction. (Note: the
plural form of the word focus is foci.)
The focal length (f) is the distance between the optical centre and
the focal point..

Converging Lenses
Converging or positive lenses converge a beam
of parallel rays of light to a real focus and are
thicker in the middle than at the edges.
A converging lens will focus the rays that enter the lens

Parallel
rays
are
brought to a focus by
a converging lens.
Light rays traveling through a
convex lens are bent towards
the principal axis. For this
reason, convex lenses are
called converging lenses.
The type of images created by

a convex lens is dependent on
the position of the object.
1. the object is placed at a distance greater than 2f from the lens
2. the object is placed at a distance equal to 2f from the lens
3. the object is placed at a distance between 2f and f from the lens
4. the object is placed at a distance less than f from the lens

Diverging Lenses
Diverging or negative lenses diverge a beam of
parallel rays of light from a virtual focus and are
thicker at the edges than in the middle i.e thinner
at the center than at the edge
A diverging lens will spread out the rays that enter the lens

A diverging lens makes parallel light diverge; the focal
point is that point where the diverging rays would
converge if projected back.
The image is always virtual, upright, smaller than the
object, and located closer to the lens than the object.

Ray tracing for thin lenses is similar to that for
mirrors. We have three key rays:
1. This ray comes in parallel to the axis and exits
through the focal point.
2. This ray comes in through the focal point and
exits parallel to the axis.
3. This ray goes through the center of the lens
and is undeflected.

Drawing Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lenses
Draw the three rays starting at the top of the object.
1. Ray R1 travels parallel to the principal axis. The ray bends and lines up
with a focal point. However, the concave lens is a diverging lens, so the
ray must line up with the focal point on the same side of the lens where
light rays enter it. This means that we must project an imaginary line
backwards through that focal point (F1) (shown by the dashed
line extending from R1).
2. Ray R2 points towards the focal point F2 on the opposite side of the
lens. When it hits the lens, it is bent parallel to the principal axis.
3. Ray R3 passes through the optical center of the lens. Like for the
convex lens, this ray passes through with its direction unchanged.
4. We find the image by locating the point where the rays meet. Since the
rays diverge, they will only meet if projected backward to a point on the
same side of the lens as the object. This is why concave lenses always
have virtual images. (Since the light rays do not actually meet at the
image, the image cannot be real.)

For a diverging lens, we can use the same
three rays; the image is upright and virtual.

Summary of image properties for converging and
diverging lenses

The power of a lens in diopters (m-1)is the
inverse of its focal length(m):
Lens power is measured in diopters, D:

1 D = 1 m-1.
The Thin Lens Equation;

Magnification
The thin lens equation is similar to the mirror
equation:

Magnification
A double convex lens is a

converging lens.
A double concave lens is

a diverging lens.

Magnification
The sign conventions are slightly different:
1. The focal length is positive for converging lenses and
negative for diverging.
2. The object distance is positive when the object is on
the same side as the light entering the lens (not an
issue except in compound systems); otherwise it is
negative.
3. The image distance is positive if the image is on the
opposite side from the light entering the lens;
otherwise it is negative.
4. The height of the image is positive if the image is
upright and negative otherwise.

Magnification
The magnification formula is also the same
as that for a mirror:
The power of a lens is positive if it is

converging and negative if it is diverging.

Magnification
Problem Solving: Thin Lenses
1. Draw a ray diagram. The image is located
where the key rays intersect.
2. Solve for unknowns.
3. Follow the sign conventions.
4. Check that your answers are consistent with
the ray diagram.

Magnification
An object is placed 6 cm from a converging
lens with a focal point of 4cm.
1. Calculate the position of the image
2. Calculate the magnification of the lens
3. Identify three properties of the image

Magnification
An object is placed 6 cm from a converging lens with a focal point of 4cm.
1. Calculate the position of the image
2. Calculate the magnification of the lens
3. Identify three properties of the image
The image is real, di is positive,

inverted (because the magnification is negative)
and enlarged (magnification is > 1)

Magnification
An object is placed 5cm to the left of a
converging lens which has a focal length of
2.5cm.
1. What is the position of the image?
2. Is the image real or virtual?

Magnification
An object is placed 5cm to the left of a converging lens which has a focal
length of 2.5cm.

Magnification
Draw the three rays
R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal
axis, through the lens and through the focal point F2 on the
other side of the lens.
R2 goes from the top of the object through the focal point
F1, through the lens and out parallel to the principal axis.
R3 goes from the top of the object through the optical centre
with its direction unchanged.

Magnification
The image is at the place where all the rays intersect. Draw the image.
Measure the distance between the lens and the image.

The image is 5 cm away from the lens, on the opposite side of the lens
to the object.
Is the image virtual or real?

Since the image is on the opposite side of the
lens to the object, the image is real.

Magnification
Question: An object, 1cm high, is placed 2cm to the left of a
converging lens which has a focal length of 3.0 cm. The image
is found also on the left side of the lens.
2. What is the position and height of the image?

Magnification

Magnification
Draw the three rays to locate image
R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis, through the lens and
through the focal point F2 on the other side of the lens.
R2 is the light ray which should go through the focal point F1 but the object is placed
after the focal point! This is not a problem, just trace the line from the focal point F1,
through the top of the object, to the lens. This ray then leaves the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
R3 goes from the top of the object through the optical centre with its direction
unchanged.

Magnification
Draw the image
Since the rays do not intersect on the right side of the lens, we need to trace them
backwards to find the place where they do come together. Again, this is the position of
the image.
Measure distance to image

The image is 6 cm away from the lens,
on the same side as the object.
Measure the height of the image
The image is 3 cm high.
Is image real or virtual?
Since the image is on the same side of the lens as the object, the image is virtual.

Magnification
Locating the image position for a diverging lens
An object is placed 4 cm to the left of a diverging
lens which has a focal length of 6 cm.

Magnification
Draw the lens, object, principal axis and focal points.

Magnification
Draw the three light rays to locate the image
R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis. To determine
the angle it has when it leaves the lens on the other side, we draw the dashed
line from the focus F1 through the point where R1 hits the lens. (Remember:
for a diverging lens, the light ray on the opposite side of the lens to the object
has to bend away from the principal axis.)
R2 goes from the top of the object in the direction of the other focal point F2.
After it passes through the lens, it travels parallel to the principal axis.
R3 goes from the top of the lens, straight through the optical centre with its
direction unchanged.
Just like for converging lenses, the image is found at the position where all the
light rays intersect.

Magnification
Draw the image
Draw the image at the point where all three rays intersect.
Measure the distance to the object

The distance to the object is 2.4 cm.
Determine type of object
The image is on the same side of the lens as the object, and is
upright. Therefore it is virtual.
(Remember: The image from a diverging lens is always virtual.)

Magnification
An object OO, 4.0cm high, is 20cm in front of
a thin convex lens of focal length +12cm.
Determine the position and height of its
image II (a) by construction and (b) by
computation.

Magnification
(a) The following two convenient rays from O will locate the images.

Magnification
(a) The intersection I of these two rays is the image of O. Thus II
represents the position and size of the image of OO. The image is real,
inverted, enlarged and at a greater distance from the lens than the
object. (if the object were at II, the image at OO, would be real,
inverted, and smaller).

Magnification
An object OO is 5.0cm in front of a convex lens of focal length +7.5cm.
Determine the position and magnification of its image II (a) by
construction and (b) by computation.

Magnification
(a) Choose two convenient rays from O.

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification

Magnification
Locate the image and its magnification if the object is at 30.0 cm.
q, is negative, hence virtual

M is positive and has absolute value less
than one, the image is upright and smaller
than the object.

Magnification
Example : Image formed by converging
lens.
What are (a) the position, and (b) the size,
of the image of a 7.6-cm-high leaf placed
1.00 m from a +50.0-mm-focal-length
camera lens?

Magnification
Example : Object close to converging lens.
An object is placed 10 cm from a 15-cmfocal-length converging lens. Determine the
image position and size (a) analytically, and
(b) using a ray diagram.

Magnification
Example : Diverging lens.
Where must a small insect be placed if
a 25-cm-focal-length diverging lens is
to form a virtual image 20 cm from the
lens, on the same side as the object?
Many useful optical devices require two lenses. Handling
problems involving two lenses is not much different from
dealing with a single-lens problem twice.
First, the image produced by the first lens is calculated as
though the second lens were not present. The light then
approaches the second lens as if it had come from the image
formed by the first lens.
Hence, the image formed by the first lens is treated as the object
for the second lens. The image formed by the second lens is the
final image of the system. If the image formed by the first lens
lies on the back side of the second lens, then the image is
treated as a virtual object for the second lens, so p is negative.
The same procedure can be extended to a system of three or
more lenses. The overall magnification of a system of thin
lenses is the product of the magnifications of the separate
lenses.
In lens combinations, the image
formed by the first lens becomes
the object for the second lens (this
is where object distances may be
negative). The total magnification is
the product of the magnification of
each lens.
Therefore, when two thin lenses having
focal lengths f1 and f2 are in close contact,
the two thin lenses in contact with each
other are equivalent to a single thin lens
having a focal length of the combination
given by equation:
For lenses in close contact, the power of

the combination is equal to the sum of their
individual powers.
Example
Two converging lenses are placed 20.0 cm apart, with an object
30.0 cm in front of lens 1 on the left. (a) If lens 1 has a focal length
of 10.0 cm, locate the image formed by this lens and determine its
magnification. (b) If lens 2 on the right has a focal length of 20.0
cm, locate the final image formed and find the total magnification
of the system.
Example
Two converging lenses are placed 20.0 cm apart, with an object
30.0 cm in front of lens 1 on the left. (a) If lens 1 has a focal length
of 10.0 cm, locate the image formed by this lens and determine its
magnification. (b) If lens 2 on the right has a focal length of 20.0
cm, locate the final image formed and find the total magnification
of the system.
Example
Two converging lenses are placed 20.0 cm apart, with an object 30.0 cm in front of lens 1 on the left. (a) If lens
1 has a focal length of 10.0 cm, locate the image formed by this lens and determine its magnification. (b) If
lens 2 on the right has a focal length of 20.0 cm, locate the final image formed and find the total magnification
of the system.
Locate the image and determine

the magnification of lens 1.
Locate the final image, and total magnification.

The image formed by lens 1 becomes the object for lens
Compute the object distance for lens 2:
Solve for q, which is positive, hence to the

right of the first lens
Multiply the two magnifications to get the overall

magnification of the system:
The negative sign for M indicates that the final image is inverted, and smaller than the
object because the absolute value of M is less than one. Because q is negative, the
final image is virtual.
Example : A two-lens system.
Two converging lenses, A and B, with focal lengths
fA = 20.0 cm and fB = 25.0 cm, are placed 80.0 cm
apart. An object is placed 60.0 cm in front of the first
lens. Determine (a) the position, and (b) the
magnification, of the final image formed by the
combination of the two lenses.
Example: A two-lens system.
Two converging lenses, A and B, with focal lengths fA = 20.0 cm and fB =
25.0 cm, are placed 80.0 cm apart. An object is placed 60.0 cm in front of
the first lens. Determine (a) the position, and (b) the magnification, of the
final image formed by the combination of the two lenses.
Using the lens equation we find the
image for the first lens to be 30.0 cm in
back of that lens. This becomes the
object for the second lens - it is a real
object located 50.0 cm away.
Using the lens equation again we find
the final image is 50 cm behind the
second lens.
The magnification is the product of the magnifications of the two lenses:

+0.500. The image is half the size of the object and upright.
Example : Measuring f for a diverging lens.
To measure the focal length of a diverging lens, a
converging lens is placed in contact with it. The Suns
rays are focused by this combination at a point 28.5 cm
behind the lenses as shown. If the converging lens has
a focal length fC of 16.0 cm, what is the focal length fD of
the diverging lens? Assume both lenses are thin and
the space between them is negligible.
Example : Measuring f for a diverging lens.
To measure the focal length of a diverging lens, a converging lens is placed in
contact with it. The Suns rays are focused by this combination at a point 28.5 cm
behind the lenses as shown. If the converging lens has a focal length fC of 16.0
cm, what is the focal length fD of the diverging lens? Assume both lenses are thin
and the space between them is negligible.
The image distance for the first lens is its focal length (the object is
essentially infinitely far away). This forms the (virtual) object for the
second lens. Using the lens equation and the position of the focused rays,
and solving for the focal length of the second lens, gives -36.5cm.
Lensmakers Equation
This useful equation relates the radii of
curvature of the two lens surfaces, and the
index of refraction, to the focal length:
Lensmakers Equation
This relationship is called the lens makers equation
because it can be used to determine the values of R1
and R2 that are needed for a given index of refraction
and a desired focal length f. Conversely, if the index of
refraction and the radii of curvature of a lens are
given, this equation enables a calculation of the focal
length. If the lens is immersed in something other than
air, this same equation can be used, with n interpreted
as the ratio of the index of refraction of the lens
material to that of the surrounding fluid.
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Lensmakers Equation
Example : Calculating f for a converging lens.
A convex meniscus lens is made from glass with
n = 1.50. The radius of curvature of the convex
surface is 22.4 cm and that of the concave surface
is 46.2 cm. (a) What is the focal length? (b) Where
will the image be for an object 2.00 m away?
Using the lensmakers equation

gives f = 87 cm. Then the image
distance can be found: di = 1.54 m.
Lensmakers Equation

The photographic camera is a simple optical instrument whose
essential features are shown below. It is made from a converging
lens mounted in a rotatable ring which can be moved towards or
away from a light-sensitive film.
It consists of a light-tight chamber, a converging lens that
produces a real image, and a film behind the lens to receive the
image. One focuses the camera by varying the distance between
lens and film. This is accomplished with an adjustable bellows in
antique cameras and with some other mechanical arrangement in
contemporary models.
For proper focusingwhich is
necessary for the formation of
sharp imagesthe lens-to-film
distance depends on the object
distance as well as on the focal
length of the lens.

The shutter, positioned behind the lens, is a mechanical device
that is opened for selected time intervals, called exposure
times. One can photograph moving objects by using short
exposure times or photograph dark scenes (with low light
levels) by using long exposure times.
If this adjustment were not available, it would be impossible to
take stop-action photographs. For example, a rapidly moving
vehicle could move enough in the time interval during which
the shutter is open to produce a blurred image. Another major
cause of blurred images is the movement of the camera while
the shutter is open.
To prevent such movement, either short exposure times or a
tripod should be used, even for stationary objects. Typical
shutter speeds (that is, exposure times) are (1/30)s, (1/60)s,
(1/125)s, and (1/250)s. For handheld cameras,

Basic parts of a camera:
Lens
Light-tight box
Shutter
Film or electronic
sensor

A digital camera
uses CCD sensors
instead of film.
The digitized
image is sent to a
processor for
storage and later
retrieval.

Camera adjustments:
Shutter speed: controls the amount of time
light enters the camera. A faster shutter speed
makes a sharper picture.
f-stop: controls the maximum opening of the
shutter. This allows the right amount of light to
enter to properly expose the film, and must be
adjusted for external light conditions.
Focusing: this adjusts the position of the lens
so that the image is positioned on the film.

There is a certain range of distances over
which objects will be in focus; this is
called the depth of field of the lens.
Objects closer or farther will be blurred.

There are different types of lenses available
for cameras, besides the normal lens.
Telephoto lens: longer focal length,
magnified image
Wide-angle lens: shorter focal length, wider
field of view, smaller image
Zoom lens: adjustable focal length
Digital zoom (in digital cameras): enlarges
pixels with loss of resolution

Example : Camera focus.
How far must a 50.0-mm-focallength camera lens be moved
from its infinity setting to sharply
focus an object 3.00 m away?
Using the lens equation gives the image
distance as 50.8 mm; since the focal length of
the lens is 50.0 mm (where an object at infinity
would be in sharp focus) the lens needs to
move 0.8 mm away from the infinity setting.

The lens of a certain 35-mm camera (where 35 mm
is the width of the film strip) has a focal length of
55 mm and a speed (an f -number) of f/1.8. The
correct exposure time for this speed under certain
conditions is known to be (1/500)s.
Determine the diameter of the lens.

The human eye resembles a camera in its
basic functioning, with an adjustable lens, the
iris, and the retina.

Like a camera, a normal eye focuses light and produces a sharp
image. However, the mechanisms by which the eye controls the
amount of light admitted and adjusts to produce correctly
focused images are far more complex, intricate, and effective
than those in even the most sophisticated camera.
In all respects, the eye is a physiological wonder.

Eyesight begins with lenses. As light rays enter your eye, they
pass first through the cornea and then through the crystalline
lens. These form a double lens system and focus light rays onto
the back wall of the eye, called the retina. Rods and cones are
nerve cells on the retina that transform light into electrical
signals. These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

For clear vision, the image must be formed right on the retina, not in front
of or behind it. To accomplish this, you may need a long or short focal
length, depending on the object distance.
How do we get the exact right focal length we need? Remember that the
lens system has two parts. The cornea is fixed in place but the crystalline
lens is flexible it can change shape.

When the shape of the lens changes, its focal length also changes. You
have muscles in your eye called ciliary muscles that control the shape of
the crystalline lens.
When you focus your gaze on something, you are squeezing (or relaxing)
these muscles. This process of accommodation changes the focal length
of the lens and allows you to see an image clearly.

The lens in the eye creates a real image that is smaller than the object and
is inverted
Normal eye
Normal eye

Most of the refraction is
done at the surface of the
cornea; the lens makes
small adjustments to
focus
at
different
distances.

Near point: closest distance at which eye can
focus clearly. Normal is about 25 cm.
Far point: farthest distance at which object can
be seen clearly. Normal is at infinity.
Nearsightedness: far point is too close.
Farsightedness: near point is too far away.

Defects of Vision
In a normal eye the image is focused on the retina.
If the muscles in the eye are unable to accommodate
adequately, the image will not be in focus.
This leads to problems with vision.
There are three basic conditions that arise:
1. short-sightedness
2. long-sightedness
3. astigmatism.

Defects of Vision: Short-sightedness
Short-sightedness or myopia is a defect of vision which means that the
image is focused in front of the retina.
Close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry.
This condition can be corrected by placing a diverging lens in front of the
eye. The diverging lens spreads out light rays before they enter the eye.

Defects of Vision: Long-sightedness
Long-sightedness or hyperopia is a defect of vision which means that the
image is focused behind the retina.
People with this condition can see distant objects clearly, but not close
ones.
A converging lens in front of the eye corrects long-sightedness by
converging the light rays slightly before they enter the eye.
Reading glasses are an example of a converging lens used to correct
long-sightedness.

Defects of Vision: Presbyopia
Presbyopia, which is similar to hyperopia, is decrease in the ability of the
eye to accommodate as a person ages.
Converging lenses can be used to correct this defect

Defects of Vision: Astigmatism
Astigmatism is characterized by a cornea or lens that is not
spherical, but is more curved in one plane compared to another.
It is a defect in which the eye focuses rays in one plane, such as
the horizontal plane, at a shorter distance than it does for rays
in a vertical plane. This means that horizontal lines may be
focused at a different point to vertical lines.
In astigmatism, point objects are focused as short lines, which
blurs the image. The defect is caused by an out-of-round
cornea or lens.
Astigmatism is corrected by a special lens (compensating
cylindrical lens), which has different focal lengths in the vertical
and horizontal planes.

A particular nearsighted person is unable to see objects clearly when
they are beyond 2.5 m away (the far point of this particular eye). What
should the focal length be in a lens prescribed to correct this problem?
Solution
The purpose of the lens in this instance is to move an object from
infinity to a distance where it can be seen clearly. This is accomplished
by having the lens
produce an image at the far point.
From the thin lens equation, we have
We use a negative sign for the image distance because the image is virtual
and in front of the eye. As you should have suspected, the lens must be a
diverging lens (one with a negative focal length) to correct nearsightedness.
The power of this lens is Answer 0.40 diopter.


Example: Farsighted eye.
Sue is farsighted with a near point of 100 cm. Reading glasses
must have what lens power so that she can read a newspaper at
a distance of 25 cm? Assume the lens is very close to the eye.
Solution: Using do = 25 cm and di = -100 cm gives

f = 0.33 m. The lens power is +3.0 D.

Example: Nearsighted eye.
A nearsighted eye has near and far points of
12 cm and 17 cm, respectively. (a) What lens
power is needed for this person to see
distant objects clearly, and (b) what then
will be the near point? Assume that the lens
is 2.0 cm from the eye (typical for
eyeglasses).
Solution:
lens should put a distant object at
the far point of the eye. Using do =
and di = -15 cm (since the eye is
2 cm from the lens) gives f = -0.15
m. The lens power is -6.7 D.

Vision is blurry under water because light rays
are bent much less than they would be if
entering the eye from air. This can be avoided by
wearing goggles.
Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass (simple magnifier) is a
converging lens. It allows us to focus on
objects closer than the near point, so that
they make a larger, and therefore clearer,
image on the retina.
Magnifying Glass
The simple magnifier consists of a single converging lens. As the name
implies, this Device increases the apparent size of an object.
Suppose an object is viewed at some distance p from the eye.
The size of the image formed at the retina depends on the angle
subtended by the object at the eye.
As the object moves closer to the eye, increases and a larger image is
observed. However, an average normal eye cannot focus on an object
closer than about 25cm, the near point. Therefore, is maximum at the
near point.
Magnifying Glass
To further increase the apparent angular size of an object, a converging
lens can be placed in front of the eye as in the figure, with the object
located at point O, just inside the focal point of the lens.
At this location, the lens forms a virtual, upright, enlarged image.
We define angular magnification m as the ratio of the angle subtended
by an object with a lens in use (angle ) to the angle subtended by the
object placed at the near point with no lens in use (angle o)
An object placed at the near point of the eye

(p 25cm) subtends an angle o h/25 at the eye.
An object placed near the focal point of a

converging lens produces a magnified image
that subtends an angle h/25 at the eye.
Magnifying Glass
The power of a magnifying glass is described
by its angular magnification:
If the eye is relaxed (N is the near point distance
and f the focal length):
If the eye is focused at the near point:
Magnifying Glass
What is the maximum magnification that is possible with a lens
having a focal length of 10 cm, and what is the magnification of
this lens when the eye is relaxed?
Solution:
The maximum magnification occurs when the image is located at
the near point of the eye. Under these circumstances,
When the eye is relaxed, the image is at infinity. In this case,
Magnifying Glass
An 8-cm-focal-length converging lens is used as a jewelers
loupe, which is a magnifying glass. Estimate (a) the
magnification when the eye is relaxed, and (b) the
magnification if the eye is focused at its near point N = 25 cm.
Solution:
a.With the relaxed eye focused at infinity, M = N/f, which is
about a factor of 3.
b. With the eye focused at its near point, M =
1 + N/f, or about a factor of 4.
Telescopes
We have seen how a simple lens can be used to correct eyesight. Lenses
and mirrors are also combined to magnify (or make bigger) objects that
are far away.
Telescopes use combinations of lenses to gather and focus light.
However, telescopes collect light from objects that are large but far away,
like planets and galaxies. For this reason, telescopes are the tools of
astronomers.
Astronomy is the study of objects outside the Earth, like stars, planets,
galaxies, comets, and asteroids.
Usually the object viewed with a telescope is very far away.
There are two types of objects:
Those with a detectable diameter, such as the moon, and
objects that appear as points of light, like stars
.
There are many kinds of telescopes, but we will look at two basic types:
reflecting and refracting.
Telescopes
Refracting Telescopes
A refracting telescope uses two convex lenses to enlarge an image.
The refracting telescope has a large primary lens with a long focal
length to gather a lot of light. The lenses of a refracting telescope
share a focal point. This ensures that parallel rays entering the
telescope are again parallel when they reach your eye.
Telescopes
Reflecting Telescopes
Some telescopes use mirrors as well as lenses and are called
reflecting telescopes.
Specifically, a reflecting telescope uses a convex lens and two mirrors
to make an object appear larger.
Telescopes
Reflecting Telescopes
Light is collected by the primary mirror, which is large and concave.
Parallel rays traveling toward this mirror are reflected and focused to a
point.
The secondary plane mirror is placed within the focal length of the
primary mirror. This changes the direction of the light.
A final eyepiece lens diverges the rays so that they are parallel when
they reach your eye.
Telescopes
A refracting telescope consists of two
lenses at opposite ends of a long tube. The
objective lens is closest to the object, and
the eyepiece is closest to the eye.
The magnification is given by
Telescopes
Telescopes
Astronomical telescopes need to gather as much
light as possible, meaning that the objective
must be as large as possible. Hence, mirrors are
used instead of lenses, as they can be made
much larger and with more precision.
Telescopes
A terrestrial telescope, used for viewing
objects on Earth, should produce an
upright image. Here are two models, a
Galilean type and a spyglass:
Telescopes
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope also has an
objective and an eyepiece; it is different from
a telescope in that the object is placed very
close to the eyepiece.
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope uses two lenses to achieve high magnification.
Both lenses are convex, or converging. Light from the object first
passes through the objective lens.
The lens that you look through is called the eyepiece. The focus of the
system can be adjusted by changing the length of the tube between the
lenses.
Compound Microscope
Compound Microscope
The lateral magnification
by the objective is
The angular magnification by the
eyepiece for an object placed at
the focal point of the eyepiece is,
The overall magnification of the image
formed by a compound microscope is
defined as the product of the lateral
and angular magnifications:
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

Compound Microscope
Compound Microscope
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses. The eyepiece
has a focal length of 10 cm. The objective lens has a focal length of 6 cm.
The two lenses are 30 cm apart. A 2 cm-tall object is placed 8 cm from the
objective lens.
1. Where is the final image?
2. Is the final image real or virtual?
Compound Microscope
solution
We can use ray tracing to follow light rays through the microscope, one lens at a
time.
In the diagram, the image is placed on the left side of the microscope. Since the
light will pass through the objective lens first, well call this Lens 1.
The eyepiece will be called Lens 2. Be sure to include the focal points of both
lenses in your diagram.
Compound Microscope
solution
Find the image for the objective lens.
Find the image for the eyepiece.

The image we just found becomes the object for the second lens.
Compound Microscope
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope consists of a 10X eyepiece and a
50X objective 17.0 cm apart. Determine (a) the overall
magnification, (b) the focal length of each lens, and (c) the
position of the object when the final image is in focus with
the eye relaxed. Assume a normal eye, so N = 25 cm.
Solution:
a. The overall magnification is 500X.
b. The eyepiece focal length is N/Me = 2.5 cm.
Then, solving equation for do gives do = 0.29 cm.
Finally, the thin lens equation gives fo = 0.28 cm.
c. See (b). do = 0.29 cm.

One of the basic problems of systems containing mirrors and lenses is
the imperfect quality of the images, which is largely the result of defects in
shape and form.
The simple theory of mirrors and lenses assumes that rays make small
angles with the principal axis and that all rays reaching the lens or mirror
from a point source are focused at a single point, producing a sharp
image. This is not always true in the real world. Where the approximations
used in this theory do not hold, imperfect images are formed.
If one wishes to analyze image formation precisely, it is necessary to trace
each ray, using Snells law, at each refracting surface.
This procedure shows that there is no single point image; instead, the
image is blurred.
The departures of real (imperfect) images from the ideal predicted by the
simple theory are called aberrations.
Two common types of aberrations are spherical aberration and chromatic
aberration.

Spherical aberration: rays far from the lens
axis do not focus at the focal point.
Solutions: compound-lens systems; use

only central part of lens.

Chromatic aberration: light of different
wavelengths has different indices of refraction
and focuses at different points.

Solution: Achromatic doublet, made of lenses of
two different materials
Summary
Lens uses refraction to form real or
virtual image.
Converging lens: rays converge at
focal point.
Diverging lens: rays appear to diverge
from focal point.
Power is given in diopters (m-1):
Summary
Thin lens equation:
Magnification:
Summary
Camera focuses image on film or
electronic sensor; lens can be moved and
size of opening adjusted (f-stop).
Human eye also makes adjustments, by
changing shape of lens and size of pupil.
Nearsighted eye is corrected by diverging
lens.
Farsighted eye is corrected by
converging lens.
Summary
Magnification of simple magnifier:
Telescope: objective lens or mirror

plus eyepiece lens. Magnification:

Refraction Through Lenses & Optical Instruments5

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Lenses and Optical

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Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

A typical thin lens consists of a piece of

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

The type of images created by

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Lens power is measured in diopters, D:

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

A double convex lens is a

A double concave lens is

The Thin Lens Equation;

The Thin Lens Equation;

The power of a lens is positive if it is

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

The image is real, di is positive,

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Measure the distance between the lens and the image.

Is the image virtual or real?

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Thin Lens Equation;

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.