Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud

Determinism
According to Freud behavior is determined by :

Irrational forces
Unconscious motivations
Biological and instinctual drives as

they evolve through the six

psychosexual stages of life

Psychoanalysis : An
overview
Developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers in 1890s .
Psychoanalysis is :
A set of philosophical descriptions of human nature.
A method of psychotherapy development that focus on

unconscious factors that motivate behavior and encourages

the use of transference as a way for therapists to gain
information and create connections between clients and
themselves.
A theory of personality which is developed through different
stages in life.
Psychoanalysis asserts that the impact of early childhood
sexuality and experiences, stored in the unconscious,
can lead to the development of adult emotional
problems.

Freuds Psychoanalytic
Approach:
Model of personality development
Method of Psychotherapy
Identified dynamic factors that motivate

behaviour
Focused on role of unconscious

Instincts
Libido sexual energy Pleasure principle

goal of life gain pleasure and avoid pain

Death instinct accounts for aggressive drive
to die or to hurt themselves or others
Sex and aggressive drives-powerful
determinants of peoples actions

The Structure of
Personality
THE ID The Demanding Child
Ruled by the pleasure principle
THE EGO The Adult
Ruled by the reality principle
THE SUPEREGO The Judge
Ruled by the moral principle

The Structure of Personality

ID

EGO

SUPEREGO

The mind is an iceberg

The id and superego
are below the surface
Only the ego is on
the conscious level.

Id

Basic psychic

energy and
motivations
Operates to
demands of
Pleasure Principle
- strive to satisfy
desires and reduce
inner tension
The Demanding
Child

Ego
Deals with real

world
Operates to
demands of
Reality Principle
solves problems by
planning & acting
The Adult

Superego
Internalised social

norm & moral forces

pressing on and
constraining
individual action
Acts as our
conscience
The Judge

Psychosexual Theory of
Development
Five Stages of Development
Oral

Stage
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Latency Period
Genital Stage

Psychoanalysis: Stages of
Personality Development
Period of life
Oral Stage
First year of
life

Anal Stage
Ages 1-3

Infants need to get basic nurturing, or later feeling of

greediness and acquisitiveness may develop. The
mouth is the sexual gratifying organ. Fixation on this
stage will result in personality issues such as
mistrust of others, love and fear of or inability to
form intimate relationships.
The anal zone becomes of major significance in form
of personality. A child is learning independence ,
accepting personal power and learning to express
negative feeling such as rage. Parental attitudes
and discipline patterns have a significance impact on
later personality development.

Psychoanalysis:

Stages of
Personality Development (cont)
Period of Life
Phallic Stage
Ages 3-6

This stage differs in boys and girls. The male phallic

stage is known as Oedipus complex, mother as love
object. The female phallic stage is known as Electra
complex, girls striving for fathers love and approval.

Latency Stage
Ages 6-12

Sexual interests are replaced by interest in school,

sport, and a range of new activities. This is the time
for socialization as a child begins to form relationships
with others.

Genital Stage
Ages 12-18

Sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the

lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents
direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with
the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

Defense Mechanisms
To protect the ego against the painful and

threatening impulses arising from the id we

distort the reality
The processes that distort the reality for the
ego are called defense mechanisms

Types of Defense Mechanisms

Repression
Reaction Formation
Denial
Regression
Sublimation

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Repression
Unconscious
Motivated
Forgetting

The process of preventing

unacceptable thoughts,
feelings, or urges from
reaching conscious
awareness

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Denial
Unconscious
Motivated
Not Perceiving

Perceptual Defense
Research

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms

Reaction Formation
Act

opposite of impulse

Projection
Make

impulse external

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms

Isolation/Intellectualization
Isolate

emotional reaction

Process

abstractly

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms
Displacement
Channel impulse to non-threatening
target
Sublimation
Channel impulse into socially desired
activity

Anxiety and the

Mechanisms of Defense
Defense Mechanisms in Everyday Life
Useful

in coping with unexpected or

disappointing events

Can

also make circumstances worse

Psychoanalysis: Consciousness
and the Unconscious
Consciousness
Freud believed that everything

we are aware of is stored in

our conscious. Our conscious
makes up a very small part of
who we are.
This is the aspect of our
mental processing that we can
think and talk about rationally.
A part of this includes our
memory, which is not always
part of consciousness but can
be retrieved easily at any time
and brought into our
awareness.

Psychoanalysis: Consciousness
and the Unconscious
Unconscious
That portion of the mind inaccessible to usual,

conscious thought
Get to unconscious through Free
Association: spontaneous free flowing
associations of ideas and feelings

The Unconscious
Clinical evidence for the unconscious mind:
Dreams
Slips of the tongue
Posthypnotic suggestions
Material derived from free-association
Symbolic content of psychotic symptoms

Dream Interpretation
Royal road to the unconscious
What is important in dreams is the

infantile wish fulfillment represented in

them
Freud assumed every dream has a
meaning that can be interpreted by
decoding representations of the
unconscious material
Dream symbol = represents some person,
thing, or activity involved in the

Dream Interpretations
Knife, umbrella, snake = Penis
Box, oven, ship = Uterus
Room, table with food = Women
Staircase, ladder = Sexual intercourse
Baldness, tooth removal = castration
Left (direction) = crime, sexual

deviation
Fire = bedwetting
Robber = father
Falling = anxiety

Freudian Slip
Psychological error in speaking or writing
Evidence of some unconscious urge, desire, or

conflict & struggle

When ego or superego are not doing their job
properly elements of id slip out or are seen

Psychoanalytic Techniques
Free Association
Client reports immediately without censoring any

feelings or thoughts

Interpretation
Therapist points out, explains, and teaches the

meanings of whatever is revealed

Dream Analysis
Therapist uses the royal road to the unconscious to

bring unconscious material to light

Analytical
Psychology
Carl Jung

Analytical Psychology
Broke from traditional psychoanalysis and rests
on the assumption that occult phenomenon can
and do influence the lives of everyone.
Jung believed that each of us is motivated not
only by repressed experiences but also by
certain emotionally toned experiences inherited
from our ancestors. These inherited images
make up the collective unconscious. The CU
includes those elements that we have never
experienced individually but which have come
down to us from our ancestor

This theory includes:

Archetypes The most inclusive archetype is

self-realization and can be viewed as a

balance between various opposing forces of
personality. It is a compendium of opposites
(introverted/extraverted, rational/irrational,
male/female, conscious/ unconscious , past
events/future expectations)

Levels of the Psyche

Like Freud, Jung believed that the mind had

both conscious and unconscious levels.

Unlike Freud, Jung strongly asserted that the
most important part of the unconscious
springs not from personal experiences of the
individual but from the distant past of human
existence, a concept called the collective
unconscious.
Of lesser importance to Jung are the
conscious and the personal unconscious.

Conscious
Images are those that are sensed by the ego
The unconscious elements have no relationship

to the ego
Jungs notion of the ego is more restrictive than
Freud. For Jung, the ego is not the whole
personality but must be completed by the more
comprehensive self, the centre of the personality
is largely unconscious
In a psychologically healthy person, the ego takes
a secondary position to the unconscious self

Conscious
Consciousness plays a relatively small role in

analytic psychology
An overemphasis on expanding ones conscious

psyche can lead to psychological imbalance

Healthy individuals are in contact with the
conscious world but also allow themselves to
experience their unconscious self
When this happens the individual can then
achieve individuation

Personal Unconscious
The personal unconscious embraces all

repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived

experiences from one particular individual
The personal unconscious is similar to Freuds
view of the unconscious and the preconscious
combined

Personal Unconscious
Contents of the personal unconscious are

called complexes
These are emotionally toned conglomerations

of associated ideas
For example, the concept of mother
Complexes may be partly conscious and may
stem from both personal and the collective
unconscious

Collective Unconscious
Has roots in the deep ancestral past of the

entire species
These include distant ancestors experiences
with universal concepts like God, mother, water,
earth, that are transmitted through the
generations so that people in every time have
been influenced by their primate ancestors
primordial experiences
The contents of the collective unconscious
are the same (more or less) for people of every
culture!

Collective Unconscious
These influence may peoples myths, legends,

and religious
It is humans innate tendency to react in a
particular way whenever their experiences
stimulate a biologically inherited response
tendency (like a mothers unlearned or unlikely
response of love toward her newborn)
Initially contact with these images are forms
without content but with practice the content
emerges and become relatively autonomous
images called archetypes

Archetypes
Archetypes are ancient or archaic images that
derive from the collective unconscious. They
are similar in that they are emotionally toned
collections of associated images. While
complexes are individualized components of
the personal unconscious, archetypes are
generalized and derive from the contents of
the collective unconscious.

The potential for countless numbers of archetypes

exists within each person, and when a personal

experience corresponds to the latent primordial
image, the archetype becomes activated.
Archetypes are expressed indirectly and, when
activated, it expresses itself through dreams,
fantasies, and delusions.
Dreams are the main source of archetypal materials

and offer what Jung considered proof for the existence

of archetypes.
Dreams produce motifs that could not have been
known to the dreamer through personal experience

Examples of archetypes include:

Persona which is the side of personality that
people show to the world.
Not necessarily the same as the public face
that one shows others.
Jung believed that, to be psychologically
healthy, one must strike a balance between the
demands of society and what we really are.

To be oblivious to ones persona is to underestimate

the importance of society, but to be unaware of
ones deep individuality is become societies puppet.

Shadow
is the archetype of darkness and repression, representing

the qualities that we do not wish to acknowledge but

attempt to hide from ourselves and others.
The shadow consists of morally objectionable tendencies as

well as a number of constructive qualities that we are

reluctant to face.
We must continually strive to know our shadow and this is
our first test of courage. It is easier to project this dark side
onto others that we refuse to see in ourselves.
To come to grips with the darkness within ourselves is to
achieve the realization of the shadow. Most of us never
realize our shadow and this leads to tragedy in our lives and
feelings of defeat and discouragement.

Anima
is the feminine side of men and originates in

the collective unconscious as an archetype and

remains extremely resistant to consciousness.
Few men become well acquainted with the

anima because this task requires great courage

and is even more difficult to become acquainted
with than their shadow.
To master the projection of the anima, men must
overcome intellectual barriers, delve into the far
recesses of their unconscious, and realize the
feminine side of their personality.

Anima
Jung believed that the anima originated from

early mens experiences with women including

mothers, sisters, and lovers which combine into
the concept of women.
At times the archetype of anima is an image
and at other times it is represented as a feeling
or a mood

Animus
is the masculine side of women and originates

in the collective unconscious as an archetype

that, too, is resistant to consciousness.
The animus is symbolic of thinking and

reasoning and is capable of influencing the

thinking of women yet it does not belong to her.
It belongs to the collective unconscious and
originates from the encounters of prehistoric
women with men.

Great mother
It is also known as godmother, Mother of God,

Mother Nature, Mother Earth, the stepmother,

and even a witch.
Fertility and power combine to form the concept
of rebirth which, itself, may be a different
archetype altogether.
Rebirth is represented in the process of
reincarnation, baptism, resurrection, and
individuation.

Animus
Animus originates from early womens

experiences with men including fathers,

brothers, and lovers that are combined into the
concept of men.
Both the anima and animus can influence the
relationship of men and women with partners.
The animus appears in dreams, visions, and
fantasies in a personified form

Great mother
is a derivative of the animus and anima.
Every man and women possess a great mother
archetype.
The pre-existing concept of mother has both
positive and negative feeling which extends to
this archetype.
The great mother represents the opposing
forces of fertility and nourishment on the one
hand and power and destruction on the other.

Wise Old Man

is also a derivative of the anima and animus.
The archetype is representative of wisdom and meaning,
and symbolizes humans pre-existing knowledge of the
mysteries of life.
This archetype is unconscious and cannot be directly
experienced by the individual.

The collective unconscious cannot directly impart its wisdom

to an individual.

The wise old man archetype is personified in dreams as

father, grandfather, teacher, philosopher, guru, doctor,

or priest.
It can be a king, sage, or even a magician in tales and
stories.

Hero
is an archetype that is represented in mythology

and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part

god, and one who fights evil.
Heroes are always mortal because an immortal

person has no weaknesses and cannot be a hero.

The image of the hero touches an archetype within
us, as demonstrated by our fascination with heroes in
movies, novels, plays, and on television. When the
hero conquers the villain, he or she frees us from
feelings of impotence and misery.
At the same time the hero serves as a model for the
ideal personality!

The self
is the most powerful archetype.
Jung believed that each person possesses an
inherited tendency to move toward growth,
perfection, and completion, and he called this
innate disposition the self.
The most comprehensive of all archetypes, the
self is the archetypes of archetypes because
it pulls together the other archetypes and
unites them in the process of self-realization.

Dynamics of Personality
Progression inclines a person to react

consistently to a given set of environmental

conditions, whereas regression is a necessary
backward step in the successful attainment of
a goal.
Balance of both regression and progression
leads to health personality development

Dynamics of Personality
Jung insisted that human behaviour is shaped

by both causal and teleological forces and

that causal explanations must be balanced by
teleological ones.
Adaptation to the outside world involves the
forward flow of psychic energy called
progression while adaptation to the inner
world relies on a backward flow of psychic
energy is called regression.

Psychological Type
Various psychological types grow out of the
union of two basic attitudes (introversion and
extraversion) and four separate functions
(thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting)

Attitudes
Attitude is a predisposition to act or react in a

characteristic direction.
Introversion is the turning inward of psychic

energy with an orientation toward the

subjective
Extraversion is the turning outward of psychic
energy so that a person is oriented toward the
objective and away from the subjective
People are neither one nor the other but, rather,
a balance of both

Functions
These four functions are combined with the

two attitudes to form eight possible

orientations.
Sensing tells people that something exists
Thinking enables them to recognize its

meaning
Feeling tells them its value or worth
Intuiting allow them to know about it without
knowing how they know

The four functions usually appear in a hierarchy, with one occupying a

superior position, another a secondary position, and the other two inferior
positions. Most people cultivate only one function, so they characteristically
approach a situation relying on the one dominant or superior function.
Some people develop two functions, and a few very mature individuals
have cultivated three. A person who has theoretically achieved selfrealization or individuation would have all four functions highly developed.

Development of
Personality
Jung emphasized the second half of life
The person can bring together various aspects
of life to gain self realization
Childhood
Early morningfull of potential
Lacks consciousness

Anarchic phase (chaotic, disconnected islands of

consciousness, primitive images of consciousness)

Development of
Personality
Lacks consciousness (continued)
Monarchic phase (development of the ego,
logical & verbal thinking, see themselves
objectively in the third person, islands are
larger, more numerous, but still disconnected)

Development of
Personality
Dualistic

phase (ego is both objective and

subjective, refer to themselves in the first
person, aware of the existence of other
people as separate, islands are now
continuous land, complex self with ego that
recognizes both the object and subject)

Development of
Personality
Youth
Morning sun
Climbing toward zenith toward

impending decline
Young

people strive to gain psychic and

physical independence from their parents,
find a mate, raise a family, and make a place
in the world
Middle aged people that attempt to hold on to
youthful values face a crippled second half of
life, unable to self-realize and to establish new
goals and seek out new meaning in life

Development of
Personality
Middle Life
Brilliant late morning sun but heading

toward sunset
Begins

at 35 or 40 and is filled with much

anxiety and periods of tremendous

potential
Discover

new meaning in life and often have

a new religious orientation and deal with

life/death

Development of
Personality
Old age
Evening sun
Once bright conscious that is now

markedly dim
Fear

of death, meaning of death

Self-realization
Analytical psychology is essentially a

psychology of opposites, and self-realization is

the process of integrating the opposite poles
into a single homogeneous individual. This
process of coming to selfhood means that a
person has all psychological components
functioning in unity, with no psychic processes
atrophying.

Self-realization
People who have gone through this process

have achieved realization of the self,

minimized their persona, recognized their
anima or animus, and acquired a workable
balance between introversion and
extraversion. In addition, these self realized
individual have elevated all four of the
functions to a superior position, an extremely
difficult accomplishment.

Psychotherapy
Word Association Test (responses reveal

complexes)
Dream Analysis (reflect a variety of complexes
and concepts)
Proof of the collective unconscious
Active Imagination (requires the person to begin

with an impression like a dream, image, vision,

picture, fantasy, and to concentrate on it until
the impression begins to move). Follow the
image and try to communicate with it no matter
where it goes.

Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy Four basic approaches
First, confession of a pathogenic agent
Second, interpretation, explanation, and
elucidation (insight, too)
Third, education of the patient as social beings
Fourth, transformation of the patient into a
healthy human

Critique
Nearly impossible to verify

Low rating on parsimony

Neither optimistic nor

or falsify
Difficult to test empirically
pessimistic
Generated a moderate
Neither deterministic nor
purposive
amount of research
Both conscious and
Moderate rating on
unconscious
organizing research
Motivation is both causal
Low rating on practicality
Has some internal consistent and teleological
Has a clear biological
but terms can have more
orientation
than one meaning
Low internal consistency

Emphasizes highly the

similarities among
people
Low on individual

Individual
Psychology
Alfred Adler

Aggression drive
Aggression drive the reactionwe have when

other drives
Needtoeat,sexuallysatisfied,beloved
Aggression as physical and negative Better
called assertiveness drive.

Compensation or striving to
overcome
Our personalities could be accounted forthe

ways in which we do ordont compensate

or overcome those problems(short comings,
inferiorities, etc)
"To be a human beingmeans to feel oneself
inferior." Adler believed that inferiority
feelings are the source of all human striving
inability to overcome inferiority feelings
domineer over others, lean on others
An important role in Adler theory but not
alabel for the basis motive of human life

Masculine Protest
In his culture. Man is more important and held

in higher esteem than woman.

Adler did not see mens assertiveness and
success as due to some innate superiority
But he saw it as:
Boy be encouraged to be assertive
Girl be discouraged.

Both boys and girls begin lifewith the

capacity for protest

DRIVE - STRIVING FOR

SUPERIORITY (OR
PERFECTION)
Desire to be better
Refer to unhealthy or neurotic striving
Desire to be better than others ratherthan
better in our own right.

Life Style
Adlers theory was influenced by Jan Smuts. To

understand people, we must understand them

in the context of theirenvironment, background,
both physical and social, called holism
See people as whole rather than parts
individual psychology
Life style refers to how you live your life, how
you handle problems and interpersonal relations
Life style is not merely a mechanical reaction to
the environment.

Teleology
Adler see motivation as a matter ofmoving

towards the future, ratherthen being driven

by the past
We are drawn toward our goals, ourpurpose,
called teleology

As If
As If ( influenced by philosopher Hans

Vaihinger )
For practical purposes, we need to create partial
truths -fictions
We behave as if we knew the worldwould be here
tomorrow, as ifwe were sure what good and bad
are all about.Adler called this fictional finalism
The fiction lies in the future, and
yetinfluences our behavior today

Ideal Personality:
THE SOCIALLYUSEFUL PERSON.
Potential to corporate with others to achieve

personal and social goal.

Give basically a positive outlook in life.

Social Interest and

Intelligence
Important part of a persons intelligence

functioning in a situation.
Social concern is based on innate disposition.
Involves feeling the pain of others.
Sense of caring for family, community,
society, humanity and life.

Genius
is primarily a person of supreme usefulness

Good Adjustment
Striving on the "commonly useful side.
"Poor adjustment is striving on the "commonly
useless side.
Poor Adjustment
Greatest difficulties in life and provides the

greatest injury to others.

"It is from among such individuals that
allhuman failures spring."

Inferiority
Inferiority pulled towards

fulfillment,perfection, self-actualization.
3 type of inferiority:
Organ inferiority
Psychological inferiorities
Inferiority complex

1907 : Studies of Organ Inferiority

to be a man means to suffer from an

inferiority feeling which constantly

driveshimtoovercomeitfrom Alfred Adler,
The meaning of life
Sickness, near death experience from early
age
decide to become the doctor in order
to overcome death and fear of death

Personality problem
Related to a faulty of lifestyle, usually

develop in childhood
Community
People have to cooperate
Need the social relationship

Psychological type
Emerges from combining degrees

ofactivity with social interest.

3 type of insufficient social interest:
Ruling type
Aggressive

and dominant over other

Low social interest and high degree ofactivity
Choleric, angry all time (Greek)

Leaning type Sensitive people who have develop a shell

aroundthemselves.
Low energy level and become
dependent.Phlegmatic, be sluggish (Greek )
Avoiding type

Low social interest and low activity.

Tend to become psychotic, finally knock themselves
into their own world
Melancholy, sad constantly (Greek )

Social interest : Socially useful type

High social interest and highdegree of activity
Healthy person has both social interest and
energy
Sanguine, cheerful, friendly (Greek)

Childhood
Personality or lifestyle as something

established quite early in life.

Three basic childhood situations
Organ inferiorities, early childhood diseases.
Pampering- children are taught, by actions

ofothers, that they can takewithout giving.

Neglect- child who is neglected orabused
learns what the pampered child learns

Birth order
Not only parents but also brother sand

sisters influence the child (Adleris the first

theorist.)
Only child
more likely than other to be pampered.
First child
begins life as an only child, with all
theattention to him or herself

Birth order
Second child
he or she has the first child as a sort

ofpace-setter & tends to becomequite

competitive, constantly trying to surpass
the older child.
Youngest child
most pampered in a family with more
than one child.

Psychoanalytic Social Theory

KAREN HORNEY

Psychoanalytic Social
Theory
is built onthe assumption that social and

cultural conditions, especially childhood

experiences, are largely responsible
forshapingpersonality.
People who do nothave their needs forlove and
affection satisfied during childhood develop
basic hostility toward their parents and, asa
consequence, sufferfrom basic anxiety.Horney
theorized that people combat basic anxiety by
adopting one of three fundamental styles of
relating toothers

 Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility

Three Interpersonal Orientations

Moving toward People: The Self-Effacing Solution

Moving against People: The Expansive Solution
Moving away from People: The Resignation Solution
Healthy Versus Neurotic Use of Interpersonal Orientations

Major Adjustments to Basic Anxiety

Eclipsing the Conflict: Moving toward or against Others

Detachment: Moving away from Others
The Idealized Self: Moving away from the Real Self
Externalization: Projection of Inner Conflict

 Secondary Adjustment Techniques

Cultural Determinants of Development

Gender Roles
Cross-Cultural Differences

Therapy

Self-Analysis

Parental Behavior and Personality

Development

 THE RELATIONAL APPROACH WITHIN

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
The Sense of Self in Relationships
Narcissism
Attachment in Infancy and Adulthood
Infant Attachment
Adult Attachments and Relationships
Longitudinal Studies of Attachment

Parenting
Therapy

Preview of Horneys Theory

and Object Relations Theory

Prepared to accompany Theories of Personality (5th ed.) by Susan C. Cloninger (2008),

published by Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Basic Anxiety and Basic

Hostility
BASIC ANXIETY: feeling lonely
and helpless in a hostile
world
BASIC HOSTILITY: must be
repressed for survival and
security

dependency
fear of parents
fear of loss of love

Horneys Model of Neurotic Conflict

Three Interpersonal Orientations

moving toward

(self-effacing
solution)
moving against
(expansive
solution)
moving away
(resignation
solution)

st
again

Measurement of Interpersonal Orientation:

The Cohen CAD Scale

To have something good to say about

everyone seems

[Moving Toward: Compliance Scale]

For me to have enough money or power to

impress self-styled big shots would be

[Moving Against: Aggression Scale]

Being free of social obligations is

[Moving Away: Detachment Scale]

the self-effacing
solution
needs affection and approval
needs a partner (friend; spouse;

lover)
undemanding and compliant
lives life within narrow borders
manipulative demands
poor me; playing the martyr;
the saint
represses competition or
dominance
represses rage, anger, hostility
temper tantrums

MOVING
TOWARD
PEOPLE

the expansive solution

Machiavellian, likeable facade
needs control, dominance and

power
exploits others
self-worth derived from success
and prestige
chooses a partner to enhance
prestige, wealth, or power
identifies with the ideal self

MOVING
AGAINST PEOPLE

the solution of
resignation
attitude of I don't care about

anything
emotionally flat
self-sufficient; unassailable
counterdependent (need to never
be dependent on anyone)
belittles own potential
lacks goals
overly sensitive to coercion or
advice
vacillates between despised real
self and ideal self

MOVING
AWAY FROM
PEOPLE

Healthy Versus Neurotic Use of Interpersonal

Orientations

Neurotic:
overemphasizes
one orientation

Healthy:
uses all
orientations

Neurotic
trends

disproportionate in
intensity
indiscriminant in
application

everyone must love me; I

must be better than everyone;
etc.

disregard for reality

intense anxiety if not

satisfied

MAJOR ADJUSTMENTS TO BASIC

ANXIETY:
eclipsing the conflict
detachment
the idealized self

alienation from the real self

the tyranny of the shoulds

externalization

SECONDARY ADJUSTMENT
TECHNIQUES:
blind spots
compartmentalizing
rationalization
excessive self-control
arbitrary rightness
elusiveness
cynicism

Cultural Determinants Of
Development
Gender Roles

Achievement
Social Dominance
Valuing the Feminine Role
Womb Envy
Mental Health and Gender Roles

Cultural Determinants Of
Development
Cross-Cultural Differences
Individualism
Collectivism

THERAPY
Self-analysis
personal journal

Parental Behavior and Personality Development

PARENTAL INDIFFERENCE:
THE BASIC EVIL
coldly indifferent
may be openly hostile, rejecting the child
child feels unwanted and unloved
caused by the parents own neuroses

HUMANISTIC
PSYCHOANALYSIS
ERICH FROMM

INTRODUCTION/OVERVIE
W
Erich Fromms basic thesis is that modern-day

people have been torn away from their

prehistoric union with nature and also with
one another, yet they have. The power of
reasoning, foresight, and imagination.

INTRODUCTION/OVERVIE
W
Trained in Freudian psychoanalysis and

influenced by Karl Marx, Karen Horney, and

other socially oriented theorists, Fromm
developed a theory of personality that
emphasizes the influence of socio-biological
factors, history, economics, and class
structure. His humanistic psychoanalysis
assumes that humanitys separation from the
natural world has produced feelings of
loneliness and isolation, a condition called
basic anxiety

Human Needs
Relatedness
Drive for union with another person(s)
Three basic ways:
1.
2.
3.

Submission
Power
Love

Transcendence
Urge to rise above a passive and

accidental existence and into the

realm of purposefulness and freedom

Human Needs (contd)

Rootedness
Need to establish roots or to feel

at home again in the world

Sense of Identity
Capacity for humans to be aware

of themselves as a separate
entity

Human Needs (contd)

Frame of Orientation
Being split off from nature, humans need a
road map to make their way through the
world
Summary of Human Needs
These needs have evolved from humans
existence as a separate species
Aimed at moving them toward a
reunification with the natural world
Lack of satisfaction of any of these needs is
unbearable and may result in insanity

The Burden of Freedom

Mechanisms of Escape
Authoritarianism

Tendency to give up the independence of ones own

individual self and to fuse ones self with somebody or
something outside oneself
Masochism
Sadism

Destructiveness

Is rooted in the feelings of aloneness, isolation and

powerlessness.

Conformity

People who conform try to escape from a sense of

aloneness and isolation by giving up their individuality
and becoming whatever other people desire them to be.

The Burden of Freedom

Positive Freedom
Spontaneous activity of the whole
personality
Achieved when a person becomes reunified
with others and with the world

Character Orientations
Nonproductive Orientations
Receptive

Feel that the source of all good lies outside

themselves and that the only way they can relate
to the world is to receive things.
Negative qualities:
Passitivity
Submissiveness
Lack of Self-confidence
Positivetraits:
Loyalty
Acceptance
Trust

Character Orientations
Exploitative

They aggressively take what they desire rather

than passively receive it.
Negative side:
Egocentric
Conceited
Arrogant
Seducing
Positive side:
Impulsive
Proud
Charming
Self-confident

Character Orientations
Hoarding

Seek to save that which they have already

obtained.
Negative traits:
Rigidity
Obstinacy
Lack of creativity
Positive characteristics:
Orderliness
CleanlinessPunctuality

Marketing

Character Orientations
Marketing

Marketing characters see themselves as commodities,

with their personal value dependent on their
exchange value, that is, their ability to sell
themselves.
Negative traits:
Aimless
Opportunistic
Inconsistent
Wasteful
Positive Qualities:
Open-mindedness
generosity

Character Orientations

The Productive Orientation

Psychologically healthy people work toward
positive freedom
Three Dimensions
a) Working-as a means of creative selfexpression
b) Loving-concerned with the growth and
development of themselves as well as
others.
c) Reasoning/thinking-which cannot be
separated from productive work and love.

Personality Disorders
Necrophilia
Love of death and hatred of all humanity

Malignant Narcissism
Belief that everything one owns is of great value

while anything belonging to others is worthless

Incestuous Symbiosis
Extreme dependence on ones mother to the

extent that ones personality is blended with

that of the host person

The Humanistic
Psychology
Abraham Maslow

What is Humanistic Psychology?

It emphasizes an optimistic view of

human beings, as persons who have

the ability to grow (human potential)
Though it does not deny the effect of
the environment, it sees human beings
as able to transcend it to some degree
It stresses health and actualization
It is a reaction against a deterministic
view of human beings

1st force: Psychodynamic Theory

2nd force: Behavioral Theory
3rd force: Humanistic Theory

Existentialist and Humanistic

Theorists Both
Believe in Free Will
Humanist do not believe that human being are

pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of

stimuli and reinforcements (behaviorism) or of
unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis).

Emphasize the uniqueness of each individual

Believe that humans strive for an upper level

of capabilities.
Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the
highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom.

However
On Human Nature
Existentialists see it as non-existent or neutral
Humanists see it as basically good
Optimism vs. Pessimism
Humanists optimistic about humanity and the
future
Existentialists tend to be much more gloomy

Abraham Maslow on Existential

Gloom
I do not think we need to take

too seriously the European

existentialists harping on dread,
anguish, despair, and the like, for
which their only remedy seems
to be a stiff upper lip. This high
IQ whimpering on a cosmic scale
occurs whenever an external
source of values fails to work.
They should have learned from
the psychotherapists that the
loss of illusions and the
discovery of identity, though
painful at first, can ultimately be
exhilarating and strengthening.

Maslows Three Types of

Needs
Basic Needs
Needs to Know and Understand
Aesthetic Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Basic

Needs
Self-actualization
Needs
Esteem Needs
Love & Belonging Needs
Safety Needs
Biological Needs

Physiological Needs
Needs for food, water, air, etc.
One function of civilization is to satisfy these

needs so we can focus on the higher ones

Behavioral research usually studies at this

level

Safety Needs
Needs for safety, order, security, etc.
Focused on after physiological needs met
Most commonly seen in children
Seen in some mental disorders (e.g.,

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Anxiety

Disorders, Dependent Personality Disorder)

Belongingness & Love

Needs
The need for affiliation, for friends, supportive

family, group identification, intimate

relationships
This level and higher ones often not satisfied
even in affluent countries
These needs being unfulfilled at the root of
many mental disturbances (depression,
Borderline Personality Disorder)
Need to receive and to give love

Esteem Needs
Need to be held in high regard by self and

others (not just self-esteem)

comes from mastery, achievement, adequacy,
feelings of competence, confidence,
independence
Ideally this need met by the deserved respect
of others

Self-Actualization Needs
A person must actualize, that is make real,

what exists inside them as a potential

Most other theorists wouldnt see this as a
need
Freud would predict people would stop at lower

needs
Even Adler might predict stopping at esteem
needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Basic

Needs
Self-actualization
Needs
Esteem Needs
Love & Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs

Self Actualized People (the top of

the hierarchy)
Are in touch with their spirituality (peak

experiences)
Are accurate in their perception of reality
Are comfortable with themselves & others
Are open, direct, spontaneous, independent,
playful, creative
Focus on problems outside themselves, are
concerned w/ society, the world
Need aloneness and privacy
Establish deep intimate relationships
Are non-conformists but highly ethical

Self actualized people are not

perfect
They are, however experiencing a high level

of well being and personal integration

They are still growing

What is a peak
experience?
A special moment when everything seems to

fall into place

People transcend the self and are at one with
the world
Similar to a religious, or mystical experience
A transformative experience
A part of the process of self-actualization

Can self-actualization be
measured?
The Personal Orientation Inventory

(Shostrum, 1974) measures selfactualizing characteristics, along

with dimensions like inner-outer
orientation, ability to function in the
present etc
A research article using the POI to
look at the relationship between
humanism and religion can be found
in the course Bb library.

Why doesnt everyone live up to

his/her potential?
The Jonah complex: fear of growth

because growth may lead to new situations

we would not know how to handle
Psychological and/or spiritual growth
requires courage (in addition to grace)

Person-Centered
Theory
Carl Rogers

Major philosophies and nature

of humans
Human beings are essentially rational,

constructive, positive, independent,

realistic, cooperative, trustworthy,
accepting, forward moving and full of
potential. Humans, like all organisms,
naturally tend toward actualization of their
full potential. (Gilliland & James, 1998)
Experience is key to Rogerian theory.
Because each persons perception of his or
her own experience is unique, the client is
the only expert on his or her own life.

Major constructs
Actualizing tendency. The inherent tendency of

the person to develop in ways that serve to

maintain or promote growth.
Conditions of worth. A persons worth is
conditional when his or her self-esteem is based
on significant others valuation of experience.
Congruence. The state of consonance among the
persons acting, thinking and feeling states.
When experiences are wholly integrated into the
self-concept.
Empathic understanding. One perceives as if one
were the other person but without ever losing the
as if condition.
(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
Experience (noun). All the cognitive and affective

events within the person that are available or

potentially available to his or her awareness.
Experience (verb). To receive the impact of all the
sensory or physiological events happening at the
present moment.
Genuineness. The state where there is no
difference between the real and the perceived
selves.
Organismic valuing process. The process whereby
experiences are accurately perceived, constantly
updated, and valued in terms of the satisfaction
experienced by the person.
(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
Positive regard. The perception of the self-

experience of another person that leads the

individual to feel warmth, liking and respect for
the acceptance of that person.
Positive self-regard. A positive attitude toward
the self that is not dependent on the perceptions
of significant others.
Self-actualization tendency. The tendency of the
person to move toward achieving his or her full
potential.
Self-Concept. The persons total internal view of
self in relation to the experiences of being and
functioning within the environment.
(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
Self-Experience. Any event in the

individuals perceptual field that he or she

sees as relating to the self, me, or I.
Unconditional Positive Regard. The
individuals perception of another person
without ascription of greater or lesser
worthiness to that person. It is
characterized by a total rather than a
conditional acceptance of the other person.
Unconditional self-regard. The perception
of the self in such a way that no selfexperience can be discriminated as being
more or less worthy of positive regard than
any other self-experience.
(Gilliland & James, 1998)

The Self
According to Rogers, the Self:
Is organized and consistent
Includes ones perceptions of all that

comprises I or me
Includes the relationship among I or me an
other people and features of life, as well as
the value and importance of these
relationships
Is available to consciousness but it is not
always conscious at any given moment
The shape of the self is constantly
changing,
yet
always
recognizable
(Walker
& Brokaw,
2005)

A self actualized person has the

following characteristics
Open to experience
Aware of all experience
Deal w/change in creative ways
Socially effective
Lives existentially
Lives in the here and now
Trusts self

Major personality
constructs
Personality theory has not been of major

concern to person-centered therapists,

rather the manner in which change comes
about in the human personality has been
the focus. (Gilliland & James, 1998)
Each person is unique and has the ability
to reach his or her full potential.
Once the self-concept is formed, two
additional needs are acquired:
the need for positive regard from others
the need for positive self-regard

Nature of
maladaptivity
Rogerian theory speaks primarily of

incongruence as the primary maladaptivity.

Maladaptivity relates to the blocks that are
put in the road to actualization. (Gilliland &
James, 1998)
Also, external locus of control and looking to
others for worth are seen as maladaptive.

A Growth-Promoting
Climate
Congruence - genuineness or realness
Unconditional positive regard- acceptance

and caring, but not approval of all behavior

Accurate empathic understanding an
ability to deeply grasp the clients
subjective world
Helper attitudes are more important than

knowledge

Operant
Conditioning
BF Skinner

Behaviour Modification
Behaviour modification principles are based on a

branch of psychology known as behavioural theory.

Behaviour, whether good or bad, is viewed as a
conditioned habit.
The process of behaviour change is a matter of
reconditioning behaviour.
B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, is credited
with first developing this practice in the mid 1900s.
His theory of operant conditioning formed the
basis for the principles behind the behaviour
modification approach.

Behaviour Modification
Behaviour modification, based on behaviourist principles,
operates on the following tenets:
1) All behaviour, appropriate as well as inappropriate, is
learned.
2) Behaviour is controlled by antecedents - events which
occur before a behaviour is exhibited, and by
consequences - events which occur after a behaviour
is exhibited.
2) These antecedents and consequences can be
changed in order to increase or decrease the chance
that a given behaviour will continue to be exhibited.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner coined the term operant
conditioning; it means roughly changing of
behaviour by the use of reinforcement which
is given after the desired response. Skinner
identified three types of responses or operant
that can follow behaviour.

Three types of responses

Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behaviour being repeated.
Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers: Response from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
Punishment weakens behaviour.

Reinforces can be positive or

negative
Negative Reinforcement the reinforcer is
removed after the response.
Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is turned
on; driver must put on safety belt in order to
eliminate irritating buzz (Gredler, 1992) the buzz
is a negative reinforcer for putting on the seat-belt.
Cleaning the house to get rid of disgusting mess
(Weiten, 1992), or cleaning the house to get rid of
your mother's nagging (Bootzin, et al , 1991; Leahy
& Harris, 1989). Nagging/Mess as negative
reinforcer to cleaning.

What is positive reinforcement?

Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows and is

contingent upon a behaviour and increases the

probability of a behaviour being repeated.
Positive reinforcement can increase the
probability of not only desirable behaviour but
also undesirable behaviour. For example, if a
child whines in order to get attention and is
successful in getting it, the attention serves as
positive reinforcement which increases the
likelihood that the student will continue to
whine.

Reinforces can be positive or

negative
Positive Reinforcement providing a
consequence an individual finds rewarding.

How should reinforcement be

delivered?
1. Reinforcement must be consistently

delivered, according to a planned

reinforcement schedule. If it is not, no
connection will develop between appropriate
behaviour and the reinforcement and the
behaviour will not change.

How should reinforcement be

delivered?
2. Reinforcement must be delivered

immediately or the effect of reinforcement is

reduced if not lost. In this way, a
contingency between behaviour and
reinforcement will be strengthened or
maintained.

How should reinforcement be

delivered?
3. Improvement should be reinforced. Do not

wait until the desired behaviour is perfect to

deliver reinforcement. You should recognize
improvement and let the individual know
that you recognize the effort.

The problems with reinforcers

- What is satiation and how
should it be handled?
Satiation is the term used to describe the situation of a

reinforcer losing its effectiveness. For example, if an

individual is receiving jellybeans as reinforcement, it is
likely that after a period of time he or she will tire of
them and no longer find them desirable.
Satiation can also occur if too much reinforcement is
being delivered. Earning up to ten minutes of computer
time a day may serve as reinforcement for a long period
of time, while being given the opportunity to earn an
hour of computer time, for example, may quickly lead to
satiation.

The problems with reinforcers What is satiation and how

should it be handled?
When satiation begins, the rate at which the
desired behaviour is displayed tapers off
until it stops.This is very common with
edible reinforcers. Reinforcement in the
form of activities, social opportunities, and
learning activities tend to be more immune
to satiation.

The problems with reinforcers What is satiation and how

should it be handled?
Zirpoli and Melloy (1993) suggest the following ways of
preventing satiation:
Varying the reinforcer or using a different reinforcer
for each target behaviour.
Monitoring the amount of reinforcement delivered and
using only enough to maintain the target behaviour.
Avoiding edible reinforcers (if you must use edibles,
vary and apply minimally).
Moving from a constant to an intermittent schedule of
reinforcement as soon as possible.
Moving from primary to secondary reinforcers as soon
as possible.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura

Basic Premise
We learn behavior through observation
Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through

observing consequences of behaviors of

others

Modeling
Observe behavior of others and repeat the

behavior
Bobo doll studies (1963)
Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through
exposure to a model

Factors Influencing Modeling:

Impact Tendency to Imitate
Characteristics of the models: similarity, age,

sex, status, prestige, simple vs. complex

behavior
Characteristics of observers: Low selfconfidence, low self-esteem, reinforcement for
imitation
Reward consequences of behavior: Directly
witnessing associated rewards

The Observational Learning

Process: 4 Steps
Attentional processes
Retention processes
Production processes
Incentive and motivational processes

Step 3: Production Processes

Taking imaginal and verbal representations

and translating into overt behavior- practice

behaviors
Receive feedback on accuracy of behaviorhow well have you imitated the modeled
behavior?
Important in mastering difficult skills
Ex: Driving a car

Step 1: Attentional
Processes
Developing cognitive processes to pay

attention to a model- more developed

processes allow for better attention
Must observe the model accurately enough to
imitate behavior

Step 2: Retention
Processes
To later imitate behavior, must remember

aspects of the behavior

Retain information in 2 ways:
Imaginal internal representation: Visual image

Ex: Forming a mental picture

Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior
Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in behavior

Step 4: Incentive and Motivational

Processes
With incentives, observation more quickly

becomes action, pay more attention, retain

more information
Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated
reinforcements

Aspects of the Self: Selfreinforcement and Self-efficacy

Self-reinforcement: Rewards or

punishments given to oneself for reaching,

exceeding or falling short of personal
expectations
Ex: Pride, shame, guilt

Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with

life
Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy
Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy

Self-Efficacy
High self-efficacy
Believe can deal effectively with life events
Confident in abilities
Expect to overcome obstacles effectively

Low self-efficacy
Feel unable to exercise control over life
Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile

Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
Performance attainment
Most influential
Role of feedback
More we achieve, more we believe we can
achieve
Leads to feelings of competency and control

Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
Vicarious experience
Seeing others perform successfully
If they can, I can too

Verbal persuasion
Verbal reminders of abilities

Physiological and emotional arousal

Related to perceived ability to cope
Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy
Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Childhood
Infancy: Direct modeling immediately following
observation, develop self-efficacy with control
over environment
By age 2: Developed attentional, retention and
production processes to model behavior some
time after observation, not immediately

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Adolescence
Involves coping with new demands
Success depends on level of self-efficacy
established during childhood

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Adulthood: 2 Periods
Young adulthood:
Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood
High self-efficacy to adjust successfully

Middle adulthood:
Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
Need to find opportunities to continue to enhance
self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling

and Self-efficacy
Old age:
Decline in mental/physical function, retirement
Requires reappraisal of abilities
Belief in ability to perform a task is key
throughout the lifespan

Application of Social Learning

Theory: Behavior Modification
Fears and phobias
Guided participation: Observe and imitate
Covert modeling: Imaginal
Anxiety
Fear of medical treatment
Test anxiety

Assessment of Banduras Theory:

Self-efficacy
Age and gender differences
Physical appearance
Academic performance
Career choice and job performance
Physical health
Mental health
Coping with stress

Assessment of Banduras Theory:

Television and Aggressive Behaviors
Relationship between watching violence and

imitating violence

Assessment of Banduras Theory

Strengths:
Focus on observable behavior- research support
Practical application to real-world problems
Large-scale changes

Baumrinds Parenting
Styles
Neglectful

Authoritarian

Parents are permissive and

uninvolved. Children have
poor self-control and low
achievement motivation.

Parents place firm limits

and controls on children.
Children tend to be socially
incompetent with poor
communication skills.

Indulgent

Authoritative

Parents are highly involved

but set few restrictions.
Children have poor selfcontrol.

Parents are nurturing and

supportive. Children are
self-reliant, get along with
peers, and have high
self-esteem.

End