AC Fundamentals

Sinusoidal, square and triangular

waveforms
Average and effective values,
Form and peak factors
Concept of phasors
phasor representation of
sinusoidally varying voltage and
current.
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Waveforms

Waveform : A waveform is a graph of magnitude of a

quantity with respect to time.

Electrical Waveformsare basically visual representations

of the variation of a voltage or current over time. In plain
English this means that if we plotted these voltage or
current variations on a piece of graph paper against a base
(x-axis) of time, (t) the resulting plot or drawing would
represent the shape of aWaveformas shown.

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Waveforms

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Alternating Current
The current that changes its polarity is called as
alternating current.
Definitions of an AC Quantity: An alternating
quantity is defined as the one which changes its
value as well as directions with respect to time.
Voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary
in magnitude
Voltages produce currents that vary in magnitude
and alternate in direction
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Alternating Current
A sinusoidal ac waveform starts at
zero
Increases to a positive maximum
Decreases to zero
Changes polarity
Increases to a negative maximum
Returns to zero

Variation is called a cycle

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Sine wave

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Sine waves
Sinewavesarecharacterizedbytheamplitudeandperiod.Theamplitudeisthe
maximumvalueofavoltageorcurrent;theperiodisthetimeintervalforone
completecycle.
20 V

The amplitude (A)

of this sine wave is
20 V

15 V

0 V

The period is 50.0 s

10 V

25

3 7 .5

5 0 .0

t (s)

-1 0 V
-1 5 V
-2 0 V

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T
7

Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency is
3.0 Hz

1.0 s

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A Triangular Waveform

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Square Waveform

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AC Voltage-Current Conventions
Assign a reference polarity for source
When voltage has a positive value
Its polarity is same as reference polarity

When voltage is negative

Its polarity is opposite that of the
reference polarity

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AC Voltage-Current Conventions
Assign a reference direction for
current that leaves source at positive
reference polarity
When current has a positive value
Its actual direction is same as current
reference arrow

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AC Voltage-Current Conventions
When current is negative
Its actual direction is opposite that of
current reference arrow

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Frequency
Number of cycles per second of a
waveform
Frequency
Denoted by f

Unit of frequency is hertz (Hz)

1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

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Period
Period of a waveform
Time it takes to complete one cycle

Time is measured in seconds

The period is the reciprocal of
frequency
T = 1/f

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Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak Value

Amplitude of a sine wave
Distance from its average to its peak

We use Vm for amplitude

Peak-to-peak voltage
Measured between minimum and
maximum peaks

We use Epp or Vpp and it will be equal

to 2Vm
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Peak Value
Peak value of an ac voltage or
current
Maximum value with respect to zero

If a sine wave is superimposed on a

dc value
Peak value of combined wave is sum of
dc voltage and peak value of ac
waveform amplitude
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The Basic Sine Wave

Equation

Voltage produced by a generator is

v(t) = Vm sin

Vm is maximum (peak) voltage

is instantaneous angular position of
rotating coil of the generator

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The Basic Sine Wave

Equation

Voltage at angular position of sine

wave generator
May be found by multiplying Vm times
the sine of angle at that position

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Angular Velocity
Rate at which the generator coil
rotates with respect to time, (Greek
letter omega)

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Angular Velocity
Units for are revolutions/second,
degrees/sec, or radians/sec.

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Radian Measure
is usually expressed in
radians/second
2 radians = 360
To convert from degrees to radians,
multiply by /180

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Radian Measure
To convert from radians to degrees,
multiply by 180/
When using a calculator
Be sure it is set to radian mode when
working with angles measured in
radians

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Relationship between ,T, and f

One cycle of a sine wave may be
represented by = 2 rads or t = T
sec
t
T 2
2

T
2f

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Voltages and Currents as Functions

of Time
Since = t, the equation e = Vm sin
becomes v(t) = Vm sin t
Also i(t) = Im sin t

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Voltages and Currents as Functions

of Time
Equations used to compute voltages
and currents at any instant of time
Referred to as instantaneous voltage
or current

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Voltages and Currents with Phase

Shifts
If a sine wave does not pass through
zero at t = 0, it has a phase shift
For a waveform shifted left
v = Vm sin(t + )

For a waveform shifted right

v = Vm sin(t - )
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Numerical 1
Aalternating voltage is represented by the
following expression V = 25 sin (200
Calculate the following
I. amplitude
II. time period
III. frequency
IV. Angular velocity
V. Form factor
VI. Crest factor/peak factor
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Numerical 2
A alternating voltage is represented by the following
expression V = 325 cos (100
Calculate the following
I. amplitude
II. time period
III. frequency
IV. Angular velocity
V. Form factor
VI. Crest factor/peak factor
VII.Peak voltage
VIII.Peak to peak voltage
IX. Instantaneous value at = rad

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