THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Rini Rachmawarni Bachtiar
Physiology Departement
Medical Faculty, Hasanuddin University

Student Objectives
1

Describe the general functions of the

digestive system, and name its major
divisions.

Explain the difference between mechanical

and chemical digestion, and name the end
products of digestion.

Describe the structure and functions of the

teeth and tongue.

Student Objectives
4

Explain the functions of saliva.

Describe the location and function of

the pharynx and esophagus.

Describe the structure and function of

each of the four layers of the
alimentary tube.

Student Objectives

Student Objectives

10
11

Explain the functions of the normal

flora of the colon.

Describe the functions of the liver.

Function of the Digestive System

Break down food into simple

chemicals that can
be absorbed into the blood and
lymph and
utilized by cells

Divisions of the Digestive System

1. Alimentary tubeoral cavity, pharynx,

esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine. Digestion takes place in the oral
cavity, stomach, and small intestine.

2. Accessory organssalivary glands,

teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas.
Each contributes to digestion.

Types of Digestion

1. Mechanicalbreaks food into smaller

pieces to
increase the surface area for the action
of enzymes.
2. Chemicalenzymes break down
complex organics into simpler organics
and inorganics; each enzyme is specific
for the food it will digest.

End Products of
Digestion

1. Carbohydrates are digested to

monosaccharides.

2. Fats are digested to fatty acids and glycerol.

3. Proteins are digested to amino acids.

4. Other end products are vitamins, minerals, and

water.

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Functions of the gastrointestinal organs. Transit times shown are the

length of time it takes food to reach each indicated point after ingestion.

Oral Cavity

Food enters by way of the mouth

1. Teeth and tongue break up food and mix it
with saliva.
2. Tooth structureenamel covers the crown
and provides a hard chewing surface; dentin is
within the enamel and forms the roots; the pulp
cavity contains blood vessels and endings of the
trigeminal nerve; the periodontal membrane
produces cement to anchor the tooth in the
jawbone.

Tooth structure.
Longitudinal
section of a tooth
showing internal
structure.

Oral Cavity

3. The tongue is skeletal muscle innervated by

the
hypoglossal nerves. Papillae on the upper
surface
contain taste buds (facial and glossopharyngeal
nerves).
Functions: taste, keeps food between the teeth
when chewing, elevates to push food backward
for swallowing.
4. Salivary glandsparotid, submandibular, and
sublingual; ducts take saliva to the oral cavity.

The salivary
glands
shown in left
lateral view.

Oral Cavity
5. Saliva:
Amylase digests starch to maltose;
Water dissolves food for tasting and
moistens food for swallowing;
Lysozyme inhibits the growth of bacteria

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Pharynx

Food passageway from the oral

cavity to the esophagus

1. No digestion takes place.

2. Contraction of pharyngeal muscles is
part of swallowing reflex, regulated by
the medulla.

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Esophagus

Food passageway from pharynx to

stomach

1. No digestion takes place.

2. Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) at
junction with stomach prevents backup
of stomach contents.

Structural Layers of the Alimentary

Tube

1. Mucosa (lining)made of epithelial

tissue

2. Submucosaareolar connective tissue

with blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

3. External muscle layersmooth muscle

4. Serosaoutermost layer

Structural Layers of the Alimentary

Tube
1. Mucosa (lining)made of epithelial
tissue that
Produces the digestive secretions;
Lymph nodules contain macrophages to
phagocytize pathogens that penetrate
the mucosa;
Thin layer of smooth muscle to ripple the
epithelium.

Structural Layers of the Alimentary

Tube
2. Submucosaareolar connective tissue
with
Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels;
Meissners plexus is a nerve network
that innervates the mucosa, part of the
enteric nervous system that extends the
entire length of the alimentary tube.

Structural Layers of the Alimentary

Tube
3. External muscle layertypically an inner
circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle;
Function is mechanical digestion and
peristalsis;
Innervated by Auerbachs plexus, part of
the enteric nervous system;
Sympathetic impulses decrease motility;
parasympathetic impulses increase motility.

Structural Layers of the Alimentary

Tube
4. Serosaoutermost layer;
Above the diaphragm is fibrous
connective tissue; below the diaphragm
is the mesentery (serous).
The peritoneum (serous) lines the
abdominal cavity;
Serous fluid prevents friction between
the serous layers.

The four layers

of the wall of
the alimentary
tube.
A small part of
the wall of the
small intestine
has been
magnified to
show the four
layers typical of

Stomach

In upper left abdominal quadrant;

a muscular sac that extends from
the esophagus to the small intestine

The
stomach
in anterior
view.

Stomach

1. Reservoir for food; begins the digestion of

protein.
2. Gastric juice is secreted by gastric pits
(see Tables)
3. The pyloric sphincter at the junction with
the duodenum prevents backup of intestinal
contents.

Gastric pits (glands) showing the types of cells

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS

Liver

Consists of two lobes in the upper

right and center of the abdominal
cavity

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Liver
1. Functional unit is the hexagonal liver lobule:
liver
cells, sinusoids, branches of the hepatic artery
and portal vein, and bile ducts.
2. The only digestive secretion is bile; the hepatic
duct takes bile out of the liver and unites with the
cystic duct of the gallbladder to form the
common
bile duct to the duodenum.

Liver

3. Bile salts emulsify fats, a type of

mechanical digestion (see Table).

4. Excess cholesterol and bilirubin are

excreted by the liver into bile.

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS

Gallbladder

On undersurface of right lobe of

liver

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

The liver and

gallbladder
with blood
vessels and
bile ducts.

(B) Magnified view of one liver lobul

Gallbladder

1. Stores and concentrates bile until

needed in the duodenum (see Table).

2. The cystic duct joins the hepatic duct

to form the common bile duct.

REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS

Pancreas

In upper left abdominal quadrant

between the duodenum and the
spleen

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Pancreas
1. Pancreatic juice
is secreted by acini,
carried by pancreatic duct to the
common bile duct to the duodenum (see
Fig).

The
pancreas,
sectioned to
show the
pancreatic
ducts.
The main
pancreatic
duct joins
the common
bile duct.

Microscopic
section
showing acini
with their
ducts and
several islets
of
Langerhans.

Pancreas
2. Enzyme pancreatic juice contains
enzymes for the digestion of all three food
types (see Tables).
3. Bicarbonate pancreatic juice neutralizes
HCl from the stomach in the duodenum.

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS

Small Intestine
Coiled within the center of the
abdominal cavity; extends from
stomach to colon

Digestiv
e System

The digestive organs

shown in anterior view of
the trunk and left lateral
view of the head. (The
spleen is not a digestive
organ)

Small Intestine
1. Duodenumfirst 10 inches;
1. the common bile ductbrings in bile and pancreatic
juice.
2. Jejunum (8 feet)
3. ileum (11 feet).
2. Enzymes secreted by the intestinal glands
complete digestion (see Tables).
Surface area for absorption is increased by plica
circulares, villi, and microvilli (see Fig);
Microvilli are the brush border.

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

REGULATION OF DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS

(A)Section through
the small intestine
showing plica
circulares.
(B) Microscopic view
of a villus showing
the internal structure.
The enteroendocrine
cells secrete the
intestinal hormones.

The small intestine

Small Intestine

3. The villi contain capillary networks for the absorption of

water-soluble nutrients: monosaccharides, amino acids,
vitamin C and the B vitamins, minerals, and water. Blood
from the small intestine goes to the liver first by way of
portal circulation.

4. The villi contain lacteals (lymph capillaries) for the

absorption of fat-soluble nutrients: vitamins A, D,
E, and K, fatty acids, and glycerol, which are combined
to form chylomicrons. Lymph from the small
intestine is carried back to the blood in the left subclavian
vein.

Large Intestine (colon)

Extends from the small intestine to

the anus

The large
intestine
shown in
anterior view.
The term
flexure means
a turn or
bend.

Large Intestine (colon)

1. Colonparts: cecum, ascending colon,

transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid
colon, rectum, anal canal.

2. Ileocecal valveat the junction of the cecum

and
ileum; prevents backup of fecal material into the
small intestine.

3. Colonfunctions: absorption of water, minerals,

vitamins; elimination of undigestible material.

Large Intestine (colon)

4. Normal florathe bacteria of the

colon; produce vitamins, especially
vitamin K, and inhibit the growth of
pathogens.

Large Intestine (colon)

5. Defecation reflexstimulus: stretching of the

rectum
when peristalsis propels feces into it. Sensory
impulses go to the sacral spinal cord, and motor
impulses return to the smooth muscle of the
rectum,
which contracts. The internal anal sphincter
relaxes to permit defecation. Voluntary control is
provided by the external anal sphincter, made of
skeletal muscle (see Fig).

(A) Internal and external anal sphincters shown in a frontal section

through the lower rectum and anal canal. (B) Position of rectum and anal
canal relative to

Liverother functions

1. Carbohydrate metabolismexcess glucose is

stored in the form of glycogen and converted back
to glucose during hypoglycemia; fructose and
galactose are changed to glucose.
2. Amino acid metabolismthe non-essential
amino
acids are synthesized by transamination; excess
amino acids are changed to carbohydrates or fats
by
deamination; the amino groups are converted to
urea and excreted by the kidneys.

Liverother functions

3. Lipid metabolismformation of lipoproteins

for transport of fats in the blood; synthesis of
cholesterol; excretion of excess cholesterol into
bile; betaoxidation of fatty acids to form twocarbon acetyl groups for energy use.

4. Synthesis of plasma proteinsalbumin to

help
maintain blood volume; clotting factors for
blood
clotting; alpha and beta globulins as carrier
molecules.

Liverother functions

5. Formation of bilirubinold RBCs are

phagocytized, and bilirubin is formed
from the heme and put into bile to be
eliminated in feces.

6. Phagocytosis by Kupffer cellsfixed

macrophages; phagocytize old RBCs and
bacteria, especially bacteria absorbed by
the colon.

Liverother functions

7. Storagevitamins: B12, A, D, E, and

K, and the minerals iron and copper.

8. Detoxificationliver enzymes change

potential
poisons to less harmful substances;
examples of
toxic substances are alcohol,
medications, and
ammonia absorbed by the colon.

Thank You