Machining Processes

and Machine Tools

 Introduction
Machining
is
a
general
term
describing a group of processes that
consist of the removal of material
and modification of the surfaces of a
work piece after it has been produced
by various methods.
Cutting
Abrasive processes
Advanced machining processes

Fundamentals Material Removal of

Machining

Introduction
Cutting processes remove material from the surface of a
workpiece by producing chips.
Turning
Cutting
Slab milling
End milling

 Mechanics of Cutting
independent variables
Dependent variables
Factors Influencing Machining operaticns

Cutting speed, depth of cut,

feed, cutting fluids
Tool angles
Continuous chip
Built-up edge chip
Discontinuous chip
Temperature rise
Tool wear
Machinability

 Orthogonal cutting

Cutting Ratio

Shear Strain.

Shear
angle

Velocities in the Cutting Zone

 Types of Chips Produced in Metal

Cutting

Continuous
Built-up edge
Serrated or
segmented
Discontinuous

 Chip Curl
Chip Breakers
Controlled Contact on Tools
Cutting Non-metallic Materials

 Oblique Cutting
The majority of machining operations
involve tool shapes that are three
dimensional;thus, the cutting is oblique.

 Shaving and Skiving

Shaving is useful particularly in improving
the surface finish and dimensional accuracy
of sheared parts and punched slugs.
Parts that are long or have a combination of
shapes are shaved by skiving with a
specially shaped cutting tool that moves
tangentially across the length of the work
piece.

 Cutting Forces and Power

Data on cutting forces is essential so that
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to
minimize distortion of the machine components,
maintain the desired dimensional accuracy of
the machined part, and help select appropriate
toolholders and work-holding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding
these forces without excessive distortion.

Power requirements must be known in

order to enable the selection of a machine
tool with adequate electric power.

normal
force

Powe
r

Thrust
Force

 Measuring Cutting Forces and Power

 Temperatures in Cutting
Excessive temperature lowers the strength,
hardness, stiffness, and wear resistance of the
cutting tool; tools also may soften and undergo
plastic deformation; thus, tool shape is altered.
Increased heat causes uneven dimensional
changes in the part being machined,making it
difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and
tolerances.
An excessive temperature rise can induce
thermal damage and metallurgical changes in
the machined surface, adversely affecting its
properties.

 Techniques for MeasuringTemperature

Temperatures and their distribution in

the cutting zone may be determined
from
thermocouples embedded in the
tool or the work piece

 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

 Flank Wear
Flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face
of the tool It generally is attributed to (a)
rubbing of the tool along the machined
surface, thereby causing adhesive or
abrasive wear and (b) high temperatures,
which adversely affect tool-material
properties.

Tool-life Curves
Tool-life curves are plots of experimental
data obtained by performing cutting tests on
various materials under different cutting
conditions, such as cutting speed, feed,
depth of cut, tool material and geometry,
and cutting fluids

 Crater Wear
Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the
tool

 Other Types of Wear, Chipping, and Fracture

Nose wear
Notches or grooves
Chipping

Mechanical shock
Thermal fatigue

Tool-condition Monitoring
direct method for observing the condition of a
cutting tool involves optical measurements of wear,
such as the periodic observation of changes in the
tool profile.
Indirect methods of observing tool conditions involve
the correlation of the tool condition with parameters
such as cutting forces, power, temperature rise,
work piece surface finish, vibration, and chatter.

 Surface Finish and Integrity

The term surface finish describes the
geometric features of a surface.
surface integrity pertains to material
properties, such as fatigue life and
corrosion resistance, that are strongly
influenced by the nature of the surface
produced.

 Machinability
The machinability of a material is usually
defined in terms of four factors:
Surface finish and surface integrity of the
machined part.
Tool life.
Force and power required.
The level of difficulty in chip control.

Machinability of Ferrous Metals

Steels
Stainless steel
Austenitic (300 series) steels generally are difficult to
machine.Chatter can be a problem, necessitating
machine tools with high stiffness

 Cast Irons
Grey irons generally are machinable, but they can be
abrasive depending on composition, especially pearlite.

Machinability of Nonferrous Metals

Aluminium is generally very easy to machine,
although the softer grades tend to form a builtup edge, resulting in poor surface finish.
Beryllium generally is machinable, but because
the fine particles produced during machining are
toxic, it requires machining in a controlled
environment.
Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work
hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant
tool materials and low feeds and speeds.

 Copper in the wrought condition can be difficult

to machine because of built-up edge formation,
although cast copper alloys are easy to machine.
Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good
surface finish and prolonged tool life. However,
care should be exercised because of its high rate
of oxidation (pyrophoric) and the danger of fire.
Molybdenum is ductile and work hardening. It
can produce poor surface finish; thus, sharp tools
are essential.
Nickel-based alloys and superalloys are work
hardening, abrasive, and strong at high
temperatures. Their machinability depends on
their condition and improves with annealing.

 Tantalum is very work hardening, ductile,

and soft. It produces a poor surface finish,
and tool wear is high.
Titanium and its alloys have very poor
thermal conductivity (the lowest of all
metals), causing a significant temperature
rise and built-up edge. They are highly
reactive and can be difficult to machine.
Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very
abrasive; hence, its machinability is low,
although it improves greatly at elevated
temperatures.
Zirconium has good machinability, but it
requires a coolant-type cutting fluid because
of the danger of explosion and fire.

 Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials

Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity and
a low elastic modulus, and they are thermally softening.
Polymer-matrix composites are very abrasive because of the
fibbers that are present; hence, they are difficult to machine.
Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult
to machine, depending on the properties of the matrix
material and the reinforcing fibbers.
Graphite is abrasive; it requires sharp, hard, and abrasionresistant tools.
Ceramics have a steadily improved machinability,
particularly with the development of machinable ceramics
and nanoceramics and with the selection of appropriate
processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting.
Wood is an orthotropic material with properties varying with
its grain direction.

 Thermally Assisted Machining

Metals and alloys that are difficult to
machine at room temperature can be
machined more easily at elevated
temperatures.