MGMT3724 Lecture Week 6

SHRM, Globalisation and Supply

Chains

Content

What is globalisation
Globalisation and SHRM
Supply chains & SHRM
Some conclusions

What is globalisation?
Ambiguous term for array of often interrelated
changes
Growth and elaboration of international value chains in
goods & services (waves of substantial trade growth not
new, eg late 1850-1920 but now facilitated by changes in
transport & communication technologies)
Growth of large multinational corporations with operations in
many countries & rise of corporate political influence
New and larger wave of movement of labour to match that
of goods and services
Rise of Asia especially as manufacturing and economic hub
Growing global reach/influence of the finance sector &
determination of economic policy (abandonment of closed
economy Keynesianism for Neoliberalism) and associated
changes)

Globalisation, work & SHRM

Profound changes to business & work organisation over
past 40 years (see week 4)
International shifts of workers historically
unprecedented, including
Migration shifts predominantly from poor/middle income to rich
countries though also significant movements between these
groups
Unprecedented levels of refugees (again poor to rich countries)
Increased short term movements by guestworkers,
backpackers, students globally and within regions like the EU
Increased activity/role of international agency labour, including
crewing agencies in shipping and harvest labour
movements within firms, mainly at professional/managerial
level (though this is minority but receives most attention in HR
literature)

Globalisation, work & SHRM

Last 30 years decline in unions in rich countries
(including former bastions like Sweden) & little
corresponding growth in emerging countries (see Week
5) while corporate power rising has led to growing
imbalance in worker/management relations and
increased inequality
Reasons for global union decline include:
Changes to work organisation/flexible employment,
subcontracting, privatisation, outsourcing/offshoring &
increased homecare
Abandonment of Keynesian full-employment policies, rise of
neoliberalism & financialisation (see Vachon et al 2016 in
Moodle)
Changes to IR laws and repression of unions especially in
emerging countries in Asia (eg Thailand and China)

Globalisation, work & SHRM

Outsourcing/offshoring has implications for
Performance effects and risks of failure (see for example studies by
Brede et al 2014 in Moodle Week 6 found poor quality of outsourced
software was reason firms returned to insourcing) as well as failure to
measure costs (eg Larsen 2016)
Effects on innovation due to more complex organisational structures
and transferring technical skills (link to maintenance), level of activity
like intermediate manufacturing (eg Baier et al 2013; Valle et al 2015
Wages, use of flexible workers, job security & work intensity (eg Lee
& Lee, 2015 and Gorg & Gorlich, 2015)
Workforce supply, recruitment, selection, training & skill-sets
Regulatory context governing work arrangements including job
security, union presence, OHS
Transferability of skill sets, skill composition (eg Horgos & Tajoli 2015)
Technical training infrastructure (strengthening demand for this in
some countries and weakening it in others

Globalisation, work & SHRM

Globalisation demands on HR operations also include
Managing more diverse workforces, transfers of workers &
aligning to more disparate training & regulatory contexts (eg
Bardoel 2015 study of work/life tensions in MNCs managing
globally- see Moodle Week 6)
Ensuring service/product quality in widely dispersed locations or
those supply through complex contractual networks (supply
chains)
Performance management (eg Cascio 2011 study of 278 orgs
[2/3 MNCs] operating in 15 countries found 90% used
performance management schemes (PMS) & these applied to
>70% of workforce. Most effective were those integrated with
other systems, involve senior managers & employers and linked
to org strategy. Poor compliance & monitoring major barrier to
effectiveness. PMS more often broken outside host firm country.

Globalisation, work & SHRM

Also growing interest in HR practices in emerging
economies especially China but also India, Thailand to
identify
To what extent and how these are distinctive of the Western model?
What are the major areas of difference or similarity (culture etc)?
How do different social and regulatory contexts shape HR practices
(eg worker voice mechanisms, recruitment, grievance mechanisms)
How to deal with ethical issues (eg gender discrimination, corruption)
How are HR regimes in these countries evolving over time?
Given the rise of countries like China what are the implications of
their corporate HR operations in other countries?

See articles by Fang Lee Cooke, Zheng etc in Moodle Week 6)

Globalisation in a local
context

Issue of how to deal with globalisation in

local settings is increasingly important
One issue that emerges concerns
managing cultural diversity in organisations
However, most work has focused on HR in
an international context
Around 30% of Australians were born
overseas, so we have very high levels of
cultural diversity in organisations

Strategic International HRM

Organisations operate in a global

context
Strategic international HRM (SIHRM)
management of employees in more
than one country. Range of additional
issues arise:
1. Expatriation and repatriation
2. Language training
3. Cultural training
4. Government regulations

Differences Between Domestic

& International HRM
International HRM requires:
Managing broader range of functional areas
Becoming more involved in employees personal lives
Setting up several different HRM systems for different
geographic locations
Dealing with more complex external constituencies
Participating in international assignments that have
heightened exposure to personal risk
Dealing with the HR implications of complex supply chains
(see later in the lecture)

Approaches to SIHRM
Key issue for global HRM practitioners what is the most suitable
approach to adopt when developing SIHRM practices?
Number of different approaches proposed:

1.
2.
3.

Globalised approach
Localised approach
Adaptation approach

Global approach:

Use the practices and strategy of the parent company globally

Benefits

1.
2.

Allows the organisation to maintain internal consistency

Allows resource sharing across countries

Localised approach:

Organisation adapts it HRM practices and strategy to the local

environment
Used when the home and host country are so different that the parent
companys practices would likely be ineffective

McDonalds Global and local

Strategic Approach
McDonalds Global and Local
Strategy. Explores why McDonalds
has an important local strategy for
each country alongside its clear
global strategy.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=v6coDUDCJ10

Adaptation approach

This approach may take one of two forms:

A.
B.

Organisation may adopt a localised HR strategy while using global

practices
Organisation may have a global HR strategy but use local HR practices

Cogin & Williamson Study

Surveyed senior leaders of subsidiaries in all 4 divisions

across each of the 27 countries
Targeted each subsidiarys General Manager and Deputy
General Managers
289 surveys were distributed and 213 useable responses
were returned (response rate 73.7%)

Results: When to localize

HR

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Prepared by Alannah Rafferty, edited by Varina

Staffing Approaches
Perlmutter (1969) three approaches
to staffing

1. Ethnocentric management orientation

2. Polycentric orientation
3. Regiocentric orientation

Heenan & Perlmutter (1979)

identified a fourth approach
Geocentric approach

Ethnocentric
This approach is a result of a home country
attitude
That is, power and decision-making centralised
at the head office
Key positions are filled by people from the
home country
Standards applied in the parent country are
used in the evaluation and control of employees
Advantages

Overcomes lack of qualified managers in host nation

Unified company culture
Helps transfer core competencies

Disadvantages

Produces resentment in host country

Cultural myopia

Polycentric
Likely to be used by organisations who are less concerned
with maintaining a common culture
Headquarters give more control to subsidiary, managed by
individuals from the host country
Managers in the host country are given autonomy in
determining suitable strategies and practices
As such, the standards for evaluating and controlling staff are
determined locally
Advantages
Alleviates cultural myopia
Relatively inexpensive to implement
Disadvantages
Limits ability of host country employees to gain experience
outside their culture
Can create a gap between the parent and host country
operations

Regiocentric
Similar to polycentric but as well as
being managed by host nationals,
these organisations may also be
managed by third-country nationals
This occurs because these
organisations are divided into
regions
Example Asia-Pacific and managers are developed and
selected for positions within these regions

Geocentric
Generally adopted by multinational organisations aiming to
develop a worldwide corporate culture
Managerial positions filled by the best person for the job
Have a highly unified corporate culture, which is not
necessarily dictated by the home culture
The unified corporate culture tends to lead to a certain level of
integration
Advantages
Enables the organisation to make the best use of its HR
Equips managers to work in a number of cultures
Helps build a strong unifying culture and informal management
network

Disadvantages

National immigration policies may limit implementation

Expensive to implement due to training and relocation
Compensation structure can be problematic

For a study of applicability of Geocentric approach in MNE hotel

see Serafini a &Szamosi, 2015 in Moodle Week 6)

SETTING STRATEGIC HR STANDARDS

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Prepared by Alannah Rafferty, edited by Varina

STRATEGIC ISSUES IN GLOBAL STAFFING

22

Strategic HR Issues
Organisational Issues

Individual Issues

Management of subsidiaries
Coordinate or integrate foreign
operation with domestic
Fill vacant positions
Develop local management
talent
Knowledge management

Skill development
Preparation for top management
Dual-career partner/spouse
Selection, training and support
of expatriates

National culture
There are many different theories of the
dimensions of national culture
Suggests that national culture has been
shown to influence between 20 50% of
the variation in managers and
employees attitudes at work
We will look at Hofstede (2001), however,
this is a widely contested
categorisation

Power distance
Individualism vs collectivism
Uncertainty avoidance
Masculinity-femininity
Short term vs long term orientation

Power distance
Level of inequality between people
that is considered normal in a culture
In organisational settings, high power
distance involves:

Centralised decision structures authority is concentrated

A large proportion of supervisory personnel
Ideal boss is a well-meaning autocrat or good father
Managers rely on formal rules
Subordinates expect to be told what to do

Example of high PD countries:

Malaysia, Philippines, Mexico

Individualism-collectivism
Degree to which people think of themselves as
individuals rather than group members
In the organisation setting, high individualism involves:
Hiring and firing based on skills only
Management is management of individuals
Incentives given to individuals
Leadership property of the leader
High individualism countries US, Australia, Great
Britain
Low individualism Pakistan, Indonesia, Venezuela

Masculinity-femininity
Degree to which attitudes typically perceived as
masculine (e.g., assertiveness, success, compensation)
prevail over attitudes typically perceived as feminine
(e.g., sensitivity, concern for others)
In organisational settings, high masculinity involves:
High levels of competition
Advancement and earnings important
Higher job stress
High masculinity countries Japan, Austria, Venezuela
Low masculinity countries Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden
Australia 16th out of 53 countries

Uncertainty avoidance
Degree to which individuals prefer structure to a
lack of structure, or are uncomfortable with risk
Cultures high in uncertainty avoidance design
rules and norms to reduce uncertainty
In the organisational setting, high uncertainty
avoidance involves:

Strong loyalty to employer

Power of superiors depends on ability to control uncertainty

Countries low on uncertainty avoidance

Greece, Portugal, Guatemala
Countries high on uncertainty avoidance
Denmark, Singapore
Australia ranked 37th out of 53 countries

Long vs short-term
orientation
Sense of time that goals and actions
are mapped against
In the workplace this influences:

Time frame individuals work to

Emphasis on sustainability
Perseverance
Ordering relationships by status and observing this order
Thrift

High on long-term orientation Japan,

China, Hong Kong, Taiwan
Australia 16th out of 23 countries

Expatriates
Expatriate is a citizen of one country working
in another
Expatriate failure
Most commonly measured by premature
return of a manager to his/her home country
Failure to complete strategic tasks
Lack of knowledge transfer
Cost of failure is high 3 X the expatriates
annual salary plus the cost of relocation
(influenced by exchange rates and country)

Expatriates Issues

Culture shock- feelings of anxiety or uncertainty

due to experience of a new culture
The degree of culture shock is a product of the
similarity of the two cultures and individual factors
(e.g. personality, training they received etc)
Issues:

Language barriers
Different work policies and practices
New organisational culture
National cultural differences
Lack of social networks
Identity issues.

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Prepared by Alannah Rafferty, edited by Varina

Issues in Selection for

Overseas Assignments
90% of companies base international selections on technical
expertise, downplaying other areas
Openness to experience and personal transformation is sign of
expatriate readiness
Personality aspects that impede adaptation
Authoritarianism
Rigidity
Ethnocentrism
Set clear expectations
Provide on-going, hands-on training, rather than just pre-departure
awareness training

Issues in Selection for Overseas

Assignments...
Training is opportunity to provide social
support
Employer should facilitate integration into a
local or regional network of other expatriates
Delicate equilibrium among multiple
stakeholders calls for skills similar to those
possessed by political diplomats
Creation of a strong diversity culture will
facilitate adaption.

Repatriation
Once an expatiate has completed their
assignment they must return home
repatriation
An individual must acclimatise to their
home country and organisation
Problems that may occur:
Feelings of reverse culture shock may occur
Feeling that others do not share multicultural identification can
create sense of isolation
Frequent loss of autonomy
Unrealistic expectations about being promoted upon return
Lack of utilisation of international experience
High levels of turnover- often move to competitors.

SHRM Factors

Deployment in getting right skills to

right place in organization, regardless of
geographic location
Knowledge and innovation dissemination
and transfer across business units
Talent identification and development of
those employees with abilities and skills
to function effectively in global
organization

SHRM Factors

Training prior to leaving

home country:
Language lessons
Learning about culture and its influence
Developing support networks in host country
Learning about culture shock and its signs e.g.
anxiety, stress, confusion, physiological
responses such as insomnia, etc

Alternatives to expats
Utilize expert SWAT teams deployed
on short-term basis for operational
problems technical projects
Virtual teams
Self-initiated expatriates
Utilisation of job rotation through
different business locations
These each have their own SHRM
issues to overcome.

Supply chains

Supply chains
What are supply chains
Sequence of contracts for the provision
of goods or services, commonly entailing
elaborate webs of subcontracting at
national or global level
Global trend to using and subcontracting
means complex & disparate array of HR
conditions in different suppliers, both
local & overseas

Supply chains and SHRM

Supply chains can raise problems
Quality control, coordination & timeliness
Increase need for risk minimisation (eg multiple
suppliers in different locations, corporate oversight) to
deal problems of corruption, political instability, extreme
weather events, unauthorised sub-subcontracting etc
Relocating staff, global training regimes
Reputational damage (eg one of your suppliers turns out
to have a factory in Rana Plaza building in Bangladesh)
Safety of the products or services obtained (countries
with lower standard, poor governance as well as simply
managing a more complex supply situation with more
potential for damaging disorganisation)

Ways of managing supply

chain risks
Strategic outsourcing decisions (what & where?)
Careful selection of suppliers (who and why? eg
cost v reliability)
Supplier monitoring and Corporate Social
Responsibility regimes
Challenges to this include oversight/enforcement,
countering evasion, coverage/competitive pressures,
corruption

Supply chains and aviation

health and safety: A case
study
Supply chains arising from
outsourcing/offshoring can
present significant public and worker health and
safety risks that need to be managed
Limited research into OHS effects of supply chains
(James & Walters, 2009, 2011)
More substantial body of research on subcontracting
and precarious work arrangements (often found in
supply chains) has generally found significant
adverse effects across range of industries (Quinlan &
Bohle, 2008)
Increasingly recognised by govt OHS agencies (eg
Safe Work Australia, 2013) as priority issue
Some efforts at regulatory controls, mostly voluntary
but important exceptions (eg trucking Rawling &
Kaine, 2012).

Supply chains, restructuring and

OHS in aviation
Few industries could match aviation
for pace and extent of change
Government deregulation since
1980s
Heightened competition throughout
industry for market share
Forcing corporate collapses and
mergers
Emergence of low-cost carriers
Massive restructuring of flagship
airlines

Corporate strategies
Labour market
Licensing and training reforms
Employment conditions

Changes in international safety

regulation
Our focus here is on the supply chains
that have emerged through
outsourcing of maintenance work

Supply chains and safety in

aviation

Sequence of contractual arrangements

Perform servicing and repairs on aircraft especially labourintensive heavy maintenance

Service parts

Can create jobs, training opportunities, knowledge hubs,

union organising potential etc,
but
The Airline loses direct control of the maintenance process,
which is now mediated by contractual arrangements in which
the agent may have different interests to the principle
Often multi-tiered and across borders airline may not know
where all work is performed
Heavy maintenance is typically performed in countries where
wages are low, union membership density and regulatory
oversight poor or non-existent
Airline not responsible for workload and time pressures,
worker health and safety that contractual terms create
Cost sensitivity at each link in chain acts as powerful brake
Licensing, training, experience levels potentially
compromised

The USA a cautionary

tale

Low cost airlines pioneered cost-cutting strategies

Corporate restructuring
Many flagships setting up own competition

Increased outsourcing of maintenance to cheaper providers

Between 1996 and 2008, major carriers increased proportion
of maintenance outsourced from 37% to 64% (measured by
cost) (Scovell, 2009).
Understates the extent of the shift because:
lower cost of offshored maintenance,
major carriers declining market share (which fell from 62% to
48% between 2000 and 2004)
increased use of code-sharing arrangements with regional/low
cost operators.

Code sharing, leasing aircraft

Insecure workforce, agency labour
Lean, mean strategy attributed to customer desire for cheap
travel
Really about competition, volatility, restructuring

Incidents and Regulatory debate

in
the
USA
At least six and possibly seven (Atlantic SE airways F529 August

1994 lost propeller) major incidents between 1995 and 2009

involving US airlines (all LCCs), four involved fatalities, 163 killed in
total)
NTSB investigations revealed strong links between these and the
risk factors associated with PDR model of work organisation
(including outsourcing) effects on OHS (see next slide)
Criticism of FAA (regulator) emerged from federal review bodies Government Accountability Office (GAO) Office of Inspector General
of the Transportation Department (OIG), NTSB and both House of
Representative and Senate aviation subcommittees
FAA slow to respond to negative findings
Inspectorate issues not deployed in crucial areas, lack of
enforcement, new systems not assessed re effectiveness
Uncertified work performed overseas without oversight
Government moratorium placed on certification of new MROs
2012 FAA to oversee new rules for airlines doing overseas
maintenance

Subcontracting risk factors and if identified in US

incidents (*) or Australian survey/evidence (**)
economic/reward pressures on subcontractors
greater work intensity (longer hours of work, rushing jobs etc) *,**
employment features short tenure, inexperience, low pay *,**
safety-compromising practices (less maintenance, corner cutting on tools & materials)*,**
e.g. fulfilment of terms of contract only pressure to keep costs down, not report other
faults found, deliver on time **
disorganisation
poorer communication as chain more attenuated *
safety systems poorly articulated/too complex - e.g. manufacturer manuals in English *,**
lower levels of training/induction/supervision *,**
poor procedures paper audits that bear little resemblance to reality *
inability of workers to organise, workplace power and voice not strong **
failures in regulatory oversight
gaps/inconsistencies in regulation *,**
inadequate enforcement, especially across borders *,**
inconsistent and lowered standards of licensing **
confusion and risk-shifting between parties *,**
under-resourced inspectorates struggle to develop appropriate enforcement strategies *,**
(Quinlan et al 2013, Gregson et al 2015)

Regulation of Aviation
Safety
Global regulatory framework (International Civil Aviation

Organisation (UN Chicago agreement 1944) with 192

signatories bound to keep regulations uniform with standards
and procedures specified in annexes
Annexes 1, 6 & 8 key to training and licensing of maintenance
workers, airworthiness & issues critical to maintenance
Problem - state compliance varies and difficulty knowing if
offshore MROs meet international standards (FAA had some
offshore inspectors but CASA only intermittently)
1998 Universal Safety Oversight Audit Program (USOAP) set up
to audit national regulators (visits by arrangement) & issue
ratings. National regulators could deny entry to airspace of
planes from weak/non-compliant states
Audits revealed fundamental weaknesses in safety programs
in many states and significant differences in global safety
standards (ICAO 2008)
Surprisingly, auditing rate then declined & more use of selfreport paperwork monitoring (resourcing?). 2013 ICAO Safety
Report average compliance level implementing critical
elements of safety oversight only 61% across 96% of member
states

Regulation of Aviation Safety

continued

Global Regulation regime also began to fracture

FAA taking more active role offshore

2003 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) set up to
consolidate aviation safety regulation across Europe,
approving national regulators & MROs, so airlines could
offshore maintenance to other European countries and has
extended to other countries, including some in Asia-Pacific
FAA & EASA have offshore inspectors but insufficient & also
inconsistencies (eg ICAO (serious concerns) & EASA audits
(passed) of Thailand and different responses of USA and
Europe re flights by Thai airlines 2015)
International Air Transport Association (IATA) of airline
employers introduced International Operational Safety
Audits (IOSA) claiming to treat ICAO standards as minima
and its audits claimed standards of attainment that
exceeded them. Unlike ICAO, FAA and EASA, IOSA audits
individual airlines and seeking to position itself at the
centre of safety regulation
Privatisation/outsourcing of some inspection activities by
government (Quinlan et al 2014)

The Australian experience

Australian Air Operator Certificate (AOC) holders are not required
to report to any public agency when they offshore, so the extent
or location of offshoring is unknown
Legally offshoring must occur to a MRO 'approved' by CASA, and
airline is responsible for subsequent outsourcing
CASA approves Part 145 (Certification under ICAO) MROs in
Australia and overseas
Also does 'reciprocal approval' - Bilateral Aviation Safety
Agreements (BASAs) accepts approvals of other countries NAAs
as long as they are 'ICAO compliant'
Nature and volume of inspection not known but widely considered
insufficient - trend to 'desktop audits' - not 'real' inspection of
process
Australia adopted EASA but has raised issues regarding whether
the engineering licensing regime has actually been weakened by
this (Hampson et al 2016 forthcoming)
Regulatory gaps/inconsistencies illustrated by AirAsia flight 8501
crash into Java Sea in Dec 2014 (163 killed). CASA unaware of tail
rudder issue. Not identified/remedied although plane did 78
Perth/Denpasar flights prior to this. DFAT warning not to fly on
Indonesian internal airlines, Europe restricted Indonesian airlines
to Garuda but CASA placed no restrictions on AirAsia

Creating vulnerability the working

conditions of aviation maintenance
workers
Historically combination of high skill, licensing/regulatory

requirements and unionisation gave licensed aircraft

maintenance engineers (LAMEs) considerable bargaining power
in Australia and some other rich countries
MROs vary in terms of focus (eg specialised or routine
maintenance) & work conditions like hours, pay & job security
In some rich countries with weak unions and decentralised IR
regimes like USA more scope for cost cutting in MROs through
labour saving/intensity
Offshoring to poorer countries in Asia, South America etc offers
considerable cost saving as lower wage levels, weak/no unions,
weak and poorly enforced regulatory regimes, and in some (like
Thailand and China) political regimes that actively repress
unions. Labour costs in Brazil, the Philippines and China 10 to
50% lower than USA
In-house maintenance faces competition from domestic &
offshore MROs leading to pressure on hours, work intensity, other
conditions & work practices including those affecting safety

Effects on Hours of Work of

Maintenance Engineers in Australia
2012 survey of 708 AMEs & LAMEs
626 provided information on work patterns and working hours
68.7% were employees of main-route airlines (380 were from
major carrier Airline A), 5.3% worked for regional airlines, 12.6%
from General Aviation, 9.3% were from independent MROs and
4.1% in defence, education or equipment manufacturers.
70% worked shifts (fixed or rotating) of 11-12 hours over 7 day
period
Only 35% worked standard hours (35-39 per week), 62.1%
worked 40 hours or more & 29.9% worked 45 hours or more
47.5% reported working overtime (mean 4.75 of which 3.65
paid) and seen as involuntary in many instances
Long hours seen to have fatigue and work/family balance issues
Indicative of labour over-utilisation at a time when industry
experiencing large job losses

Hours usually worked per week aircraft

maintenance industry respondents, 2012
Hours per week
Part time (34 hours or less)
Full time - standard (35 - 39 hours)
Full time stretched (40 - 44
hours)
Long hours (45 - 49 hours)
Very long hours (50 hours or more)
Total

Number

Per cent

20

3.5

205

35.4

181

31.3

111

19.2

62

10.7

579

100.0

Long hours/night work and

safety related decisionmaking

Respondents referred to increased safety

risks involved in shift work, especially night
shift, advising that management should not
schedule complicated, heavy tasks late at
night because coordination and thinking was
more impaired at that time.
I have personally seen incidents occurring due [to
lack of] situational awareness, communication
breakdown and fatigue. The employer blaming the
employee for incidents and employer not looking
at their own policies and employment numbers for
task requirements. The airlines preach safety
first but still carry on doing the opposite (10242).

Increased supervisory pressure,

additional rectification work and threats
to security
Professional commitment to standards
amidst strong pressure to do that bit
extra to fix numerous defects that should
have been done during routine
maintenance performed elsewhere. As one
wrote:
They always threaten us saying how expensive it is and
how cheap it is, the work done overseas. But they dont
see that the aircraft that undergo an overseas check
has so many defects that we have to fix during the next
maintenance check that we do, so then it takes longer
for us to fix things that the overseas people should have
fixed. We are always under pressure to meet unrealistic
deadlines to match what overseas MRO do (10375).

Aviation maintenance outsourcing: a

final comment

HR implications of outsourcing/offshoring maintenance

not confined to public & worker safety. Other
implications include effects on

Wages, employment conditions & job security

Workforce supply and skill sets
Workforce ageing and new entrants
Training regimes and access to technical skills
Innovation and collaborative business networks
Strategic government/defence alignments
Worker voice & regulatory context
(For evidence on some of these see ARC Future of Aircraft
Maintenance Project Report in Moodle readings for Week 9)

This example highlights just some of the complex HR

challenges posed by supply chains