CHAPTER2

HIERARCHYOFBIOLGICAL
ORGANIZATION
ExploringLifeonitsManyLevels
1. Cellularandecologicallevel
2. Interactionoforganisminecosystem
3.Regulatorymechanismsensureadynamicbalanceinlivingsystems

1.Cellularandecologicallevel
Lifesbasiccharacteristicisahighdegreeoforder.
Biologicalorganizationisbasedonahierarchyof
structurallevels,eachbuildingonthelevelsbelow.
Atthelowestlevelareatomsthatareorderedinto
complexbiologicalmolecules.
Manymoleculesarearrangedintominutestructurecalled
organelles,whicharethecomponentsofcells.

Molecule:

Organelle:

 Cellsarethesubunitsoforganisms,theunitsoflife.
Someorganismsconsistofasinglecells,othersare
multicellularaggregatesofspecializedcells.
Whethermulticellularorunicellular,allorganisms
mustaccomplishthesamefunctions:uptakeand
processingofnutrients,excretionofwastes,response
toenvironmentalstimuli,andreproductionamong
others.

Fig.1.2(3)

 Lifecanbe
organizedintoa
hierarchyof
structurallevels.
Ateachsuccessive
leveladditional
emergentproperties
appear.

Fig.2.1

 Multicellularorganismsexhibitthreemajorstructural
levelsabovethecell:similarcellsaregroupedintotissues,
severaltissuescoordinatetoformorgans,andseveral
organsformanorgansystem.
Forexample,tocoordinatelocomotorymovements,
sensoryinformationtravelsfromsenseorganstothe
brain,wherenervoustissuescomposedofbillionsof
interconnectedneurons,supportedbyconnectivetissue,
coordinatesignalsthattravelviaotherneuronstothe
individualmusclecells.

Fig.1.2(4)

Fig.1.2(5)

 Organismsbelongtopopulations,localizedgroupof
organismsbelongingtothesamespecies.
Populationsofseveralspeciesinthesamearea
compriseabiologicalcommunity.
Thesepopulationsinteractwiththeirphysical
environmenttoformanecosystem.

Fig.1.2(6)

Levels of organization in the living organisms

1. Atom smallest unit of an element retaining the properties of that
element
2, Molecule of life - two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
(ex: sugar, amino acid, fatty acids, and nucleic acids)
3. Organelles formed body within cells; has specific functions
4. Cell all of lifes properties first occur
5. Tissue integrated group of cells with common structure and function
6. Organ specialized center of body function composed of different types
of tissues
7. Organ System consists of two or more organs integrated and
coordinated to function
8. Organism individual living entity

Levels of organization in the living World

1. Organism individual living entity
2. Population localized group of organism of same
species
3. Community populations of all species within the
same area
4. Ecosystem biological community and all abiotic
factors of the environment
5. Biome - all the plants and animals that live in a
certain region
6. Biosphere sum of all our planets ecosystem

Organisms
in
ecosystem
interact
continuously with the environment in
harmony
The dynamics of any ecosystem includes
the cycling of nutrients and the flow of
energy.

Minerals acquired by plants will be returned to

soil by microorganisms that decompose leaf
litter, dead roots and other organic debris.

Energy flow proceeds from sunlight to

photosynthetic organisms (producers) to
organisms that feed on plants (consumers).

Fig.1.6

The exchange of energy between an

organism and its surroundings involves the
transformation of energy from one form to
another.
When a leaf produces sugar, it converts solar
energy to chemical energy in sugar molecules.
When a consumer eats plants and absorbs these
sugars, it may use these molecules as fuel to
power movement.
This converts chemical energy to kinetic energy.
Ultimately, this chemical energy is all converted
to heat, the unordered energy of random
molecular motion.

Life continually brings in ordered energy

and releases unordered energy to the
surroundings.

Carbon exist in the nonliving environment as:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and
dissolves in water (HCO3-)
Carbonated rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO 3)

Deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas

derived from once living things
Dead organic matter. E.g: humus in soil.

Carbon enters the biotic world through autotrophs:

Primarily autotrophs; plants & algae. Use light
energy to convert CO2 to organic matter.

Chemoautotrophs
such
as
bacteria
and
archaens that do the same but use the energy
derived form an oxidation of molecules in their
substrate.

CO2in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Photo Cellular
synthesis respiration
Burning
offossil
fuelsand
wood
Phyto
plankton

Consumers

Consumers

Decomposition
Fig.1.7

Carbon return to the atmosphere and water by

respiration (as CO2), burning and decay(producing
CO2 if O2 if present, methane (CH4) if it is not.

E.g of energy flow: _________________

Energy flow different with nutrient cycle as the

energy cannot be recycled.
Energy flows through ecosystem whereas nutrient
cycles within them
Energy flow can be traced by the trophic levels of
feeding relationship among communities.
Primary producers primary consumers
secondary consumers tertiary consumers.

Sun
Chemicalcycling
Energyflow

Heat
Primaryproducers

Primary
consumers

Detritus

Secondaryand
tertiaryconsumers

Microorganisms
andother
detritivores

Detritivores, or decomposers, are

consumers that derive their energy from
detritus, nonliving organic matter
Prokaryotes and fungi are important
detritivores
Decomposition connects all trophic levels

Organisms obtain useful energy from fuels

like sugars because cells break the
molecules down in a series of closely
regulated chemical reactions.
Special protein molecules, called enzymes,
catalyze these chemical reactions.

Enzymes speed up these reactions and can

themselves be regulated.
When muscle need more energy, enzymes
catalyze the rapid breakdown of sugar
molecules, releasing energy.
At rest, other enzymes store energy in complex
sugars.

Many biological processes are selfregulating, in which an output or product of

a process regulates that process.
Negative feedback or feedback inhibition
slows or stops processes.
Positive feedback speeds a process up.

Fig.1.8

A negative-feedback system keeps the body

temperature of mammals and birds within a
narrow range in spite of internal and
external fluctuations.
A thermostat in the brain controls processes
that holds the temperature of the blood at a set
point.
When temperature rises above the set point, an
evaporative cooling system cools the blood until
it reaches the set point at which the system is
turned off.
If temperature drops below the set point, the
brains control center inactivates the cooling
systems and constricts blood to the core,
reducing heat loss.

This steady-state regulation, keeping an

internal factor within narrow limits, is called

While positive feedback systems are less

common, they do regulate some
processes.
For example, when a blood vessel is injured,
platelets in the blood accumulate at the site.
Chemicals released by the platelets attract
more platelets.
The platelet cluster initiates a complex
sequence of chemical reactions that seals the
wound with a clot.

Regulation by positive and negative

feedback is a pervasive theme in biology.