Basic Electronic

Engineering
Chapter 5:
BJT AC Analysis
Instructor: Fahd Naveed Cheema
Email: fahd.cheema@cust.edu.pk
Office Timings: Monday 11 AM - 1 PM
Fahd Cheema

5-1

BJT AC Analysis Objectives

re, hybrid, and hybrid models for the BJT transistor.
Learn to use the equivalent model to find the important AC
parameters for an amplifier.
Understand the effects of a source resistance and load
resistor on the overall gain and characteristics of an
amplifier.
Become aware of the general AC characteristics of a variety of
important BJT configurations.
Begin to understand the advantages associated with the twoport systems approach to single- and multistage amplifiers.
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5-2

Amplification in AC Domain
Transistor can be employed as an amplifying device.
That is, the output sinusoidal signal is greater than the input
sinusoidal signal, or, the output ac power is greater than the
input ac power.
The question then arises as to how the AC power output can be
greater than the input AC power?
Conservation of energy dictates that over time the total power
output, Po, of a system cannot be greater than its power input,
Pi, and that the efficiency defined by = Po > Pi cannot be
greater than 1.

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5-3

Amplification in AC Domain
The factor missing from the discussion that permits an AC power
output greater than the input AC power is the applied DC power.
It is the principal contributor to the total output power even though
part of it is dissipated by the device and resistive elements.
In other words, there is an exchange of DC power to the AC
domain that permits establishing a higher output ac power.
In fact, a conversion efficiency is defined by = Po(AC)>Pi(DC),
where Po(ac) is the ac power to the load and Pi(dc) is the dc power
supplied.

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5-4

Amplification Example
Effect of a Control Element on the Steady-state flow of the Electrical System
The peak value of the
oscillation
in
the
output
circuit
is
controlled
by
the
established DC level.
Any attempt to exceed
the limit set by the dc
level will result in a
clipping (flattening)
of the peak region at
the high & low end of
the output signal.

The application of a relatively small signal to the control mechanism

can result in a substantial oscillation in the output circuit.
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5-5

BJT Transistor Modeling

A model is an equivalent circuit that represents the AC
characteristics of the transistor.
A model uses circuit elements that approximate the behavior
of the transistor.
There are three models commonly used in small signal AC
analysis of a transistor:
1. re model
2. Hybrid equivalent model
3. Hybrid - equivalent model

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5-6

BJT Transistor Modeling:

Voltage Divider Configuration
The DC supplies can be replaced by a short circuit. The capacitors C1,
C2 and C3 be replaced by a low-resistance path or a short circuit.
This will result in the shorting out of the DC biasing resistor RE.

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5-7

BJT Transistor Modeling

The input impedance is defined from base to ground.

The input current as the base current of the transistor.
The output voltage as the voltage from collector to ground.
The output current as the current through the load resistor
R C.

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5-8

BJT Transistor Modeling:

Voltage Divider Configuration

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5-9

Gain
We know that the transistor is an amplifying
device, we would expect some indication of
how the output voltage Vo is related to the
input voltage Vi i.e. voltage gain.
Note in Fig. 5.7, the current gain is defined by:
Ai = Io / Ii

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5-10

Transistor Modeling: Summary

In summary, therefore, the AC equivalent of a
transistor network is obtained by:
Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a
short-circuit equivalent.
Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent.
Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit
equivalents introduced by steps 1 and 2.
Redrawing the network in a more convenient and
logical form.
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5-11

The re Transistor Model

BJTs are basically current-controlled devices;
therefore the re model uses a diode & a current
source to duplicate the behavior of the transistor.
One disadvantage to this model is its sensitivity
to the DC level.

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5-12

1) Common-Emitter Configuration
The equivalent circuit for the common-emitter configuration
will be constructed using the device characteristics and
a number of approximations.
Starting with the input side, we find the applied voltage Vi
is equal to the voltage Vbe with the input current being
the base current Ib as shown in Fig. 5.8 .
From Chapter 3, because the current
through the forward-biased junction of
the transistor is Ie , the characteristics
for the input side appear as shown in
Fig. 5.9a for various levels of Vbe.
Taking the average value for the curves of
Fig. 5.9a will result in the single curve of
Fig. 5.9b , which is simply that of a
forward-biased diode.
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5-13

Equivalent Circuit: Input Side

For the equivalent circuit, therefore, the input
side is simply a single diode with a current IE,
as shown in Fig. 5.10 .
However, we must now add a component to the
network that will establish the current Ie of Fig.
5.10 using the output characteristics.
If we redraw the collector characteristics to
have a constant as shown in Fig. 5.11 (another
approximation), the entire characteristics at the
output section can be replaced by a controlled
source whose magnitude is beta times the
base current as shown in Fig. 5.11 .

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5-14

Equivalent Network: Input Side

Because all the input and output parameters of the original configuration
are now present, the equivalent network for the common-emitter
configuration has been established in Fig. 5.12.

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5-15

Improved Equivalent
Network: Input Side
The equivalent model of Fig. 5.12 can be awkward to work with due to the
direct connection between input and output networks.
It can be improved by first replacing the diode by its equivalent resistance
as determined by the level of Ie, as shown in Fig. 5.13 . Recall that the diode
resistance is determined by:

rD = 26 mV / ID
Using the subscript e because the determining current is
the emitter current will result in

re = 26 mV / Ie

Now, for the input side:

&

thus
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5-16

Equivalent Network: Impedance

The result is that the input impedance
seen looking into the base of the
network is a resistor equal to beta
times the value of re, as shown in Fig.
5.14 .
The collector output current is still
linked to the input current by beta as
shown in the same figure.
An output impedance can now be
defined that will appear as a resistor in
parallel with the output current as
shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig.
5.16
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 Fahd Cheema

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Common Emitter AC Analysis

1. The input signal Vi is applied to the
base and the output Vo is off the
collector.
2. The input current Ii is not the base
current and the output Io is the
collector current.
3. For small-signal (AC) analysis, VCC is
replaced with ground.
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5-19

Common Emitter AC Analysis

4. Those dc blocking capacitors C1 and C2 are
replaced with short circuits.
5. So the RB is in parallel with the input port and
RC with the output port.
6. The parameters of Zi , Zo , Ii and Io should be in
the same places as original network.
7. Finally, substitute the re model for the transistor.
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5-20

Common Emitter AC Analysis

In practice:
is read from the datasheet or measured with
testing instrument.
The re is determined from dc analysis.
The ro is obtained from the datasheet.
In the small-signal (AC) analysis, we assume
that , ro and re have been determined in
advance.

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5-21

Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias
Network Parameters
The input is applied to the base.
The output is taken from the collector.
High input impedance.
Low output impedance.
High voltage and current gain.
Phase shift between input and output
is 180.
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Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias
Network Parameters
Substituting the re model for the common-emitter configuration of
Fig. 5.21 results in the network of Fig. 5.22 .

In majority situations

thus

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Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias
Network Parameters
Recall that the output impedance
of any system is defined as the
impedance Zo determined when
Vi = 0. For Fig. 5.22 , when Vi = 0,
Ii =IB = 0, resulting in an open
circuit equivalence for the current
source.
The
result
is
the
configuration of Fig. 5.23. We have

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Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias
Network Parameters

but

so that

and

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5-25

Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias
Network Parameters
AI Current gain:

Io
RB ro
Ai
I i (ro RC )(RB re )
Ai

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ro 10 RC , RB 10 re

Current Gain
from
Voltage Gain:

Zi
A i A V
RC

5-26

Phase Relationship
The negative sign in the resulting
equation for Av reveals that a 1800
phase shift occurs between the input
and output signals, as shown in Fig. 5.24
.
The is a result of the fact
that IB establishes a
current through RC that
will result in a voltage
across RC, the opposite
of that defined by Vo.
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5-27

2) Common-Collector Configuration

Previous model of
common-emitter can be
applied to this
configuration also.
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5-28

3) Common-Base Configuration
Low input and a high output impedance
Current gain < 1.
The voltage gain, however, can be quite large.
The standard configuration appears in Fig. 5.42 , with the common-base re
equivalent model substituted in Fig. 5.43 .
The transistor output impedance ro is not included because it is typically
in the megohm range and can be ignored in parallel with the resistor RC .

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5-29

Common-Base Configuration
The input is applied to the emitter.
The output is taken from the
collector.
Low input impedance.
High output impedance.
Current gain < 1.
Very high voltage gain.
No phase shift.

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5-30

Common-Base Parameters

with
so that

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5-31

Phase Relationship
The fact that Av is a positive number shows that Vo and Vi are
in-phase for the common-base configuration.

Effect of ro
For the common-base configuration, ro is typically in the megohm
range and sufficiently larger than the parallel resistance RC to
permit the approximation

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5-32

Example 5.8
Ex) As shown in the figure, it is the
common-base configuration. Determine:
re , Zi , Zo, Av and Ai.
Solution:
DC Analysis:

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AC Analysis:

5-33

4) Voltage-Divider Bias

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5-34

re Model
Substituting re equivalent circuit, note that:
RE is absent due to the low impedance of the bypass capacitor CE .
When VCC is set to zero, one end of R1 and RC are connected to ground.
R1 and R2 remain part of the input circuit while RC is part of output circuit.

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5-35

Voltage-Divider Bias
Network Parameters

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5-36

Phase Relationship
The negative sign in the resulting
equation for Av reveals that a 1800
phase shift occurs between the
input and output signals.

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Voltage-Divider Bias
Equivalent Circuit

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5-38

Example 5.2
For the network of Fig. 5.28 , determine:
a. re
b. Zi
c. Zo (ro = ).
d. Av (ro = ).
e. The parameters of parts (b) through (d) if ro = 50k
DC Analysis:

(from Ch # 4)

AC Analysis:
There was a measurable difference in
the results for Zo and Av , because the
condition ro 10RC was not satisfied.
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5-39

5) CE Emitter-Bias Configuration
The networks examined in this section include an emitter resistor that may or may not be
bypassed in the ac domain. We first consider the un-bypassed situation and then modify
the resulting equations for the bypassed configuration.

Un-bypassed:

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CE Emitter-Bias Parameters
Applying KVL to the input side of Fig. 5.30 results in

and the input impedance looking into the network

to the right of RB is
The result as displayed in Fig. 5.31 reveals that the
input impedance of a transistor with an unbypassed resistor RE is determined by

Because RE is usually greater than re

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CE Emitter-Bias Parameters

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5-42

Phase Relationship
The negative sign in the
resulting equation for Av reveals
that a 1800 phase shift occurs
between the input and output
signals.

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CE Emitter-Bias Equivalent

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 Fahd Cheema

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Example 5.3
For the network of Fig. 5.32, without CE (un-bypassed), determine:

Analysis:

AC Analysis:

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Example 5.4
For the network of Fig. 5.32, with CE in place, determine:

Analysis:

AC Analysis:

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6) Emitter-Follower Configuration
When the output is taken from the
emitter terminal of the transistor as
shown in Fig. 5.36, the network is
referred to as an emitter-follower.
The Vo is always slightly less than
the Vi due to the drop from base
to emitter, (but Av ~ 1).
Unlike the collector voltage, the
emitter voltage Vo is in phase
with the signal Vi.
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5-48

Emitter-Follower Configuration
The fact that Vo follows the
magnitude of Vi with an in-phase
relationship accounts for the
terminology emitter-follower.
In fact, because the collector is
grounded for AC analysis, it is
actually a common-collector
configuration.

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5-49

Emitter-Follower Configuration
The emitter-follower configuration has a high
input impedance and a low output impedance.
This is the reason why it is used for impedance
matching purpose.
This can give a weak load to the previous
stage and a strong output ability to the next
stage.
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5-50

re Equivalent Circuit

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5-51

Emitter-Follower
Network Parameters
ZI

Zi RB ||Z b
Zb re ( 1)RE
Zb (re RE )
Zb RE
ZO

Zo RE||re
Zo re
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RE re
5-52

Emitter-Follower
Network Parameters
(applying voltage divider)

as

Ai

Zi
A i A v
RE

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 Fahd Cheema

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Effect of RS & RL
on Voltage Gain
All the parameters determined in the last few sections have been for an
unloaded amplifier with the input voltage connected directly to a terminal of
the transistor.
In this section the effect of applying a load to the output terminal and the
effect of using a source with an internal resistance will be investigated.

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5-55

Effect of RS & RL
on Voltage Gain
In Fig (a); the gain is commonly referred to as the no-load gain
and given as:

In Fig (b) a load has been added in the form of a resistor RL ,

which will change the overall gain of the system.

In Fig (c) both a load and a source resistance have been

introduced, which will have an additional effect on the gain of the
system. The resulting gain is typically given the following notation:

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5-56

Effect of RS & RL
on Voltage Gain
The loaded voltage gain of an amplifier is always less than the no-load gain.
In other words, the addition of a load resistor RL to the configuration of Fig. (a) will
always have the effect of reducing the gain below the no-load level.
Furthermore: The gain obtained with a source resistance in place will always
be less than that obtained under loaded or unloaded conditions due to the
drop in applied voltage across the source resistance.
In total, therefore, the highest gain is obtained under no-load conditions and the
lowest gain with a source impedance and load in place. That is:
For the same configuration

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AvNL > AvL > Avs.

5-57

Effects of Source
& Load Resistances
For a particular design, the larger the level of RL, the greater is the level of
AC gain.
In other words, the larger the load resistance, the closer it is to an opencircuit approximation that would result in the higher no-load gain.
For a particular amplifier, the smaller the internal resistance of the signal
source, the greater is the overall gain.
In other words, the closer the source resistance is to a short-circuit
approximation, the greater is the gain because the effect of Rs will essentially
be eliminated.
For any network that have coupling capacitors, the source and load
resistance do not affect the DC biasing levels.
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1) Effect of RS & RL on Voltage

Gain of Common Emitter Config.

Right Fig is exactly the same in

appearance as below Fig except
that now there is a load resistance
in parallel with RC and a source
resistance has been introduced in
series with a source Vs .
re model of Common Emitter Fixed Bias Configuration
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Voltage Gain for

Load Resistance
The only difference in the gain equation using
Vi as the input voltage is the fact that RC of gain
equation of common emitter configuration has
been replaced by the parallel combination of
RC and RL.
This makes good sense because the output
voltage of below figure is now across the
parallel combination of the two resistors.

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5-60

Network Parameters for

Source and Load Resistances
The input and the output impedances are same as before
i.e. without introduction of the source and load resistances.

If the overall voltage gain from signal source Vs to output voltage Vo is desired,
it is only necessary to apply the voltage-divider rule as follows:
Because the factor Zi / (Zi + Rs)
must always be less than 1, the
eq clearly supports the fact that
the signal gain AvS is always
less than the loaded gain AvL.

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2) Effect of RS & RL on Voltage

Gain of Voltage Divider Config.

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3) Effect of RS & RL on Voltage

Gain of Emitter Follower Config.

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Current Gain
In reality the voltage gain is usually the gain of most importance.
For each transistor configuration, the current gain can be determined
directly from the voltage gain, the defined load, and the input impedance.
The derivation of the equation linking the voltage and current gains can be
derived using the two-port configuration of Fig. 5.60 .

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5-64

Determining the Current Gain

The current gain is defined by:

Applying Ohms law to the input and output

circuits results in:
The value of RL is defined
by the location of Vo and Io.
The minus sign associated with the output equation is simply there to indicate
that the polarity of the output voltage is determined by an output current
having the opposite direction. By definition, the input and output currents have
a direction entering the two-port configuration.

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5-65

Current Gain of
Common Base Configuration

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Thus both the equations of current gain agree.

Thus any method can be used to determine Ai

5-66

Summary CE Fixed Bias

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5-67

Summary Voltage Divider

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5-68

Summary Emitter Follower

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5-69

Summary Common Base

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5-70

Effect of Load Impedance on Gain

This model can be applied
to any current- or voltagecontrolled amplifier.
Adding a load reduces
the gain of the amplifier:

Vo
RL
Av
AvNL
Vi RL Ro

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Zi
Ai Av
RL

5-71

Effect of Source Impedance on Gain

The amplitude of the
applied signal that
reaches the input of the
amplifier is:

RiVs
Vi
R i Rs
The internal resistance of the signal source reduces the overall gain:

Vo
Ri
Avs
AvNL
Vs Ri Rs
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5-72

Combined Effects of RS & RL

on Voltage Gain
Effects of RL:
Av

Vo RL AvNL

Vi RL Ro

Ai Av

Ri
RL

Effects of RL and RS:

Vo
Ri
RL
Avs
AvNL
Vs Ri Rs RL Ro
Rs R i
Ais Avs
RL

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 Fahd Cheema

5-74

Cascaded Systems
The output of one amplifier is the input to the next amplifier.
The overall voltage gain is determined by the product of gains of
the individual stages.
The DC bias circuits are isolated from each other by the
coupling capacitors.
The DC calculations are independent of the cascading.
The AC calculations for gain and impedance are interdependent.

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5-75

Darlington Connection
A very popular connection of two bipolar junction transistors for operation
as one superbeta transistor is the Darlington connection shown in Fig.

The main feature of the Darlington connection is that the composite transistor
acts as a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current
gains of the individual transistors.
If the connection is made using two separate transistors having current gains
of 1 and 2, the Darlington connection provides a current gain of
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5-76

Darlington Connection
The Darlington circuit provides
very high current gain, equal to
the product of the individual
current gains:

D = 1 2
The practical significance is that
the circuit provides a very high
input impedance.
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5-77

1) Emitter-Follower Amplifier
using Darlington BJT Pair
The primary impact of using this
Darlington configuration is an
input impedance much larger
than that obtained with a
single-transistor network.
The current gain is also
larger, but the voltage gain for
a single-transistor or Darlington
configuration remains slightly
less than one.

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5-78

Emitter-Follower
Amplifier DC Biasing
Base current: there are now two base-to-emitter voltage drops to include and
the beta of a single transistor is replaced by the Darlington combination.

The emitter current of Q1 is equal to the base current of Q2

so that

The collector voltage of both transistors is

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5-79

DC Biasing Contd
the emitter voltage of Q2

the base voltage of Q1

the collector-emitter voltage of Q

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Emitter-Follower Amplifier
AC Input Impedance
The ac input impedance can be determined using the ac equivalent network of Fig. 5.77 .

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Emitter-Follower Amplifier
AC Current Gain
The current gain can be determined from the equivalent network of Fig. 5.78.
The output impedance of each transistor is ignored and the parameters for
each transistor are employed.

Using the current-divider rule on the input circuit:

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Emitter-Follower Amplifier
AC Voltage Gain

an expected result for the emitter-follower configuration.

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Emitter-Follower Amplifier
AC Output Impedance

Fig. 5.78: Equivalent Network

The output impedance will be determined by going back to Fig. 5.78 and setting Vi to
zero volts as shown in Fig. 5.79. The resistor RB is shorted out, as shown in Fig. 5.80.

FIG. 5.79 Determining Z o .

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FIG. 5.80 Redrawn of

network of Fig. 5.79.

5-84

AC Output Impedance Contd

At point a Kirchhoffs current law will result in

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law around the entire outside loop will result in

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AC Output Impedance Contd

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Example 5.17
Q) Calculate the dc bias voltages and currents and input impedance for the Darlington
configuration of Fig:

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Example 5.17 Contd

Q) Perform AC analysis on the Darlington configuration of Fig:

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2) Voltage-Divider Amplifier
using Darlington BJT Pair
DC Analysis:

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Voltage-Divider Amplifier
AC Input Impedance

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Voltage-Divider Amplifier
AC Current Gain

For the original structure:

For Fig. 5.82

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Voltage-Divider Amplifier
AC Voltage Gain

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Voltage-Divider Amplifier
AC Output Impedance
Because the output impedance in RC is parallel with the collector to
emitter terminals of the transistor, we can look back on similar situations
and find that the output impedance is defined by

where ro2 is the output resistance of the transistor Q2 .

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5-93

Packaged Darlington Amplifier

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5-94

Not Included

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5-95

The Hybrid Equivalent Model

The re model has the advantage that the parameters
are defined by the actual operating conditions,
whereas
the parameters of the hybrid equivalent circuit are
defined in general terms for any operating conditions.

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5-96

Two-Port Systems Approach

With Vi set to 0 V:
ZTh Zo Ro

The voltage across the

open terminals is:
ETh AvNLVi

where AvNL is the

no-load voltage
gain

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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

The parameters relating the four variables are called h-parameters ,

from the word hybrid.
The term hybrid was chosen because the mixture of variables ( V and
I) in each equation results in a hybrid set of units of measurement for
the h -parameters.
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5-98

The Hybrid Equivalent Model

h11 If we arbitrarily set Vo = 0 (short circuit the output terminals) and
solve for h11, we get:

The ratio indicates that the parameter h 11 is an impedance parameter with the units of ohms.
Because it is the ratio of the input voltage to the input current with the output terminals shorted , it is called
the short-circuit input-impedance parameter.

h12 If Ii is set equal to zero by opening the input leads, the following results for h12 :

The parameter h12 , therefore, is the ratio of the input voltage to the output voltage with the input current
equal to zero. It has no units because it is a ratio of voltage levels and is called the open-circuit reverse
transfer voltage ratio parameter.
The subscript 12 of h12 indicates that the parameter is a transfer quantity determined by a ratio of input (1)
to output (2) measurements.
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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

h21 If in Vo is set equal to zero by again shorting the output
terminals, the following results for h21:

We now have the ratio of an output quantity to an input quantity. The term forward will now be used
rather than reverse as indicated for h12 .
The parameter h21 is the ratio of the output current to the input current with the output terminals
shorted. It has no units because it is the ratio of current levels. It is formally called the short circuit
forward transfer current ratio parameter.

h22 can be found by opening the input leads to set I1 = 0

Because it is the ratio of the output current to the output voltage, it is the output conductance
parameter, and it is measured in siemens (S). It is called the open-circuit output admittance.
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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

Because each term of Eq. (5.133) has the unit volt, let us apply
Kirchhoffs voltage law to find a circuit that fits the equation.
Performing this operation results in the circuit of Fig. 5.94 .
Because the parameter h11 has the unit ohm, it is represented by a resistor
in Fig. 5.94. The quantity h12 is dimensionless and therefore simply
appears as a multiplying factor of the feedback term in the input
circuit.
Because each term of Eq. (5.134) has the units of current, let us now apply
Kirchhoffs current law to obtain the circuit of Fig. 5.95.
Because h22 has the units of admittance, which for the transistor model is
conductance, it is represented by the resistor symbol.
Keep in mind, however, that the resistance in ohms of this resistor is equal
to the reciprocal of conductance (1/ h22 ).
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5-101

The Hybrid Equivalent Model

The complete ac equivalent circuit for
the basic three-terminal linear device is
indicated in Fig. 5.96 with a new set of
subscripts for the h -parameters.

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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

Because hr is normally a relatively small quantity, its removal is approximated by h r=0 and hrVo=
0, resulting in a short-circuit equivalent for the feedback element as shown in Fig. 5.99.
The resistance determined by 1/ho is often large enough to be ignored in comparison to a parallel
load, permitting its replacement by an open-circuit equivalent for the CE and CB models, as
shown in Fig. 5.99 .
The resulting equivalent of Fig. 5.100 is quite similar to the general structure of the commonbase and common-emitter equivalent circuits obtained with the re model.

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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

Hybrid parameters are developed and used for modeling the transistor.
These parameters can be found on a transistors specification sheet:
hi = input resistance
hr = reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi / Vo) 0
hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io / Ii)
ho = output conductance

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Simplified General h-Parameter Model

hi = input resistance
hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
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re vs. h-Parameter Model

Common-Emitter
hie re
hfe ac

Common-Base
hib re
hfb 1

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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

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The Hybrid Equivalent Model

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EXAMPLE 5.19

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The Hybrid Model

The hybrid model is most useful for analysis of
high-frequency transistor applications.
At lower frequencies the hybrid model closely
approximate the re parameters, and can be replaced
by them.

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Troubleshooting
Check the DC bias voltages
If not correct, check power supply, resistors,
transistor. Also check the coupling capacitor
between amplifier stages.
Check the AC voltages
If not correct check transistor, capacitors and the
loading effect of the next stage.

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Assignment 4
Due Date: 16-Dec

Quiz 3

Ch 5
Due Date: 16-Dec
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Thank You

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