Chemistry

Chemistry is the study of matter and its

composition,
structure,
properties, and
reactions.

Chemistry is Everywhere
Chemistry happens all
around you, for example,
when you
cook food,
add chlorine to your pool,
digest food, or
drop an antacid tablet in a
glass of water.

Field of Chemistry
The field of chemistry is divided into
branches.

General Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Biochemistry

This text contains study features to complement your

learning style, such as

a periodic table on the inside front cover,

tables with useful information on inside back cover,
Looking Ahead at the start of each chapter,
Learning Goals at the beginning of each section,
a Glossary and Index at end of text.

Chapter Links to Real-Life

Throughout the chapters, there are features that help you connect
the concepts to real-life situations including

Chemistry Link to Health,

Chemistry Link to the Environment,
Chemistry Link to Industry, and
Chemistry Link to History.

End of Chapter Study Aids

At the end of each chapter, you will find study aids
such as

Concept Maps that show connections between

important concepts,
Chapter Reviews that provide a summary,
Key Terms that include definitions,
Understanding the Concepts, a set of questions
that help to visualize concepts, and
Additional Questions and Problems and
Challenge Problems to test your understanding.

Active Learning
Use Active Learning methods to help you learn
chemistry.

Practice problem solving.

Note questions you have about the reading to
discuss with your professor or laboratory
instructor.
Read all assigned materials before you attend
lectures.
Attend the Professor's office hours for help.

General, Organic, and

Biological Chemistry
Fourth Edition
Karen Timberlake

Chapter 2
Chemistry and
Measurements

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Measurement
We use measurements in everyday life, such as

walking 2.1 km to campus,

carrying a backpack with a mass of 12 kg, and
observing when the outside temperature has
reached 22 oC.

The Metric System (SI)

The metric system and SI (Systme International)
are used

for length, volume, mass, temperature, and

time,
in most of the world, and
everywhere in science fields.

Units in the Metric System

In the metric and SI systems, one unit is used for each
type of measurement.
Measurement
Length
Volume
Mass
Temperature
Time

Metric
SI
meter (m) meter (m)
liter (L)
cubic meter (m3)
gram (g) kilogram (kg)
Celsius (C)Kelvin (K)
second (s) second (s)

Length Measurement
Length
is measured using a meter stick.
uses the unit meter (m) in both the metric and SI
systems.
uses centimeters (cm) for smaller units of length.

Inches, Centimeters, and Meters

Useful relationships between units of length.

Volume Measurement
Volume
is the space occupied by a
substance.
uses the unit liter (L) in the metric
system.

uses the unit cubic meter (m3) in

the SI system.
is measured using a graduated
cylinder in units of milliliters (mL).

Quarts, Liters, and Milliliters

Useful relationships between units of volume.

Mass Measurement
The mass of an object is
a measure of the quantity of
material it contains.
measured in grams (g) for
small masses.
is measured in kilograms
(kg) in the SI system.

The standard kilogram for the

United States is stored at the
National Institute of Standards
and Technology.

Pounds, Grams, and Kilograms

Useful relationships between units of mass.

Temperature Measurement
Temperature indicates how hot or cold a substance
is, and is

measured on the Celsius

(C) scale in the metric
system,
measured on the Kelvin (K)
scale in the SI system,
And 18 C or 64 F on this
thermometer.

Time Measurement
Time measurement

uses the unit second (s) in both the metric and

SI systems.

Days, Hours, Minutes, Seconds

Useful relationships between units of time.

Scientific Notation
Scientific Notation

is used to write very large or very small numbers.

is used to give the width of a human hair (0.000008 m) as 8 x
10-6 m.

for a large number such as 100,000 hairs is written as 1 x 10 5

hairs.

Writing Numbers in Scientific

Notation
A number in scientific notation contains a
coefficient between 1 and 10 and a power of 10
and a unit.

For numbers larger than 1, the power of 10 is

positive.

Writing Numbers in Scientific

Notation
For numbers smaller than 1, the power of 10 is
negative.

Some Powers of Ten

Converting Scientific Notation to

a Standard Number
When a number in scientific notation has a positive
power of 10,

move the decimal point to the right for the same

number of places as the power of 10 and
add placeholder zeros to give the additional
decimal places needed.

Converting Scientific Notation to a

Standard Number
When a number in scientific notation has a negative
power of 10,

move the decimal point to the left for the same

number of places as the power of 10 and
add placeholder zeros in front of the coefficient as
needed.

Learning Check
Select the correct scientific notation for each.
1.

0.00000008 m
A. 8 x 108 m

2.

B. 8 x 108 m

C. 0.8 x 107 m

A. 7.2 x 104 L B. 72 x 103 L

C. 7.2 x 104 L

72,000 L

Learning Check
Write each as a standard number.
1.

2.0 x 102 s
A. 200 s B. 0.0020 s C. 0.020 s

2.

1.8 x 105 g
A. 180,000 g B. 0.000018 g

C. 18,000 g

Representing Measured Numbers

Measured numbers are numbers obtained by using
measuring devices, such as
a

scale or analytical balance,

graduated cylinder,

clock or stopwatch, or

ruler

Representing Measured Numbers

On a metric ruler with lines marking divisions of
0.1 cm, write the length to 0.1 cm and estimate the
value of the final number to 0.01 cm by visual
inspection.

Rules for Significant Figures

In a measured number, the significant figures (SFs)
are all digits including the estimated number. A number is
a significant figure if it is

a nonzero number. (234 g, 3 SF)

a zero between nonzero numbers.
(50071 g, 5 SF)
a zero at the end of a decimal number. (50.00 m, 4 SF)
the coefficient of a number is written in scientific
notation.
(2.0 x 103 m, 2 SF)

Scientific Notation and Significant

Zeros
When one or more zeros in a large number are
significant, they are shown more clearly by writing
the number in scientific notation.
5,000. kg

5.000 x 103 kg

If zeros are not significant, we use only the nonzero

numbers in the coefficient.
5,000 kg

5 x 103 kg

Exact Numbers
Exact numbers are

those numbers obtained by counting items.

those numbers in a definition comparing two units
in the same measuring system.
not measured and do not affect the number of
significant figures in a calculated answer.

Learning Check
Identify the following as exact or measured
numbers.
1. 824.75 cm
2. 23 students in the class
3. 1 m = 100 cm

Learning Check
How many significant figures are in the following
numbers?
1. 8250 cm
2. 0.012 g
3. 8.20 L
4. 3.040 x 102 m

Solution
How many significant figures are in the following
numbers?
1. 8250 cm

(3 SF)

2. 0.012 g (2 SF)
3. 8.20 L

(3 SF)

4. 3.040 x 102 m (4 SF)

Calculations with Measured Numbers

The number of significant
figures in measured
numbers are used to limit
the number of significant
figures in the final answer.
Calculators do not provide
the appropriate number of
significant figures.

Rounding Rules
To represent the appropriate number of
significant figures, we use "rules for rounding."
1. If the first digit to be dropped is 4 or less,
then it, and all following digits are simply
dropped from the number.
2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater,
then the last retained digit of the number is
increased by 1.

Rounding

Multiplication and Division

When multiplying or dividing use
the same number of significant figures (SF)
as the measurement with the fewest
significant figures, and
the rounding rules to obtain the correct
number of significant figures.

Learning Check
Give an answer for the following with the
correct number of significant figures.

A. 9

B. 9.2

C. 9.198

A. 61.59

B. 62

C. 60

3.

A. 11.3 B. 11

C. 0.041

Adding Significant Zeros

Sometimes we add one or more significant zeros to the
calculator display in order to obtain the correct number
of significant figures needed.
Example:
Suppose the calculator display is 4, and you need
3 significant figures.
4 becomes 4.00
1 SF

3 SF

Addition and Subtraction

When adding or subtracting,
use the same number of decimal places as the
measurement with the fewest decimal places
and
use rounding rules to adjust the number of
digits in the answer.

Learning Check
For each calculation, round the answer to give
the correct number of decimal places.
A. 257

B. 256.7

C. 256.65

A. 40.725

B. 40.73

C. 40.7

Prefixes
A prefix
in front of a unit increases or decreases the size
of that unit.
makes units larger or smaller than the initial
unit by one or more factors of 10.
indicates a numerical value.

Metric and SI Prefixes

Prefixes that increase the size of the unit:

Metric and SI Prefixes

Prefixes that decrease the size of the unit:

Learning Check
Indicate the unit that matches the description.
1. a mass that is 1000 times greater than 1 gram
A. kilogram B. milligram
C. megagram
2. a length that is 1/100 of 1 meter
A. decimeter B. centimeter C. millimeter
3. a unit of time that is 1/1000 of a second
A. nanosecond B. microsecond C. millisecond

Learning Check
Select the unit you would use to measure
1. your height.
A. millimeters B. meters

C. Kilometers

2. your mass.
A. milligrams

C. Kilograms

B. grams

3. the distance between two cities.

A. millimeters B. meters
C. Kilometers
4. the width of an artery.
A. millimeters B. meters

C. kilometers

Metric Equalities
An equality
states the same measurement in two different units.
can be written using the relationships between two
metric units.
Example: 1 meter is the same as 100 cm and 1000 mm.

Measuring Length

The metric length of 1 meter is the same length as 10 dm, 100 cm,
and 1000 mm.
Q How many millimeters (mm) are in 1 centimeter (cm)?

Measuring Volume

Measuring Mass
Several equalities can be written for mass in
the metric (SI) system.

Learning Check
Indicate the unit that completes each of the
following equalities.
1. 1000 m = A. 1 mm

B. 1 km

C. 1 dm

2. 0.001 g = A. 1 mg

B. 1 kg

C. 1 dg

3. 0.1 s

B. 1 cs

C. 1 ds

B. 1 cm

C. 1 dm

= A. 1 ms

4. 0.01 m = A. 1 mm

Equalities
Equalities
use two different units to describe the same
measured amount.
are written for relationships between units of the
metric system; between U.S. units or between
metric and U.S. units.
Examples:

Equalities and Conversion Factors

Equalities are
written as a fraction.
used as conversion factors.
can be represented with one equality in the
numerator and the second equality in the
denominator.
Examples:

Common Equalities

Conversion Factors in a Problem

A conversion factor
may be obtained from information in a word
problem.
is written for that problem only.
Example 1: The motorcycle was traveling at a
speed of 85 km/h.

Example 2: One tablet contains 500 mg vitamin C.

Percent as a Conversion Factor

A percent factor
uses a ratio of the parts to the whole in a
fraction.

uses the same units for the parts and whole.

uses the value 100 for the whole.
can be written as two factors.
Example: A food contains 18% (by mass) fat.

Guide to Problem Solving

Using Conversion Factors
There are 4 steps to solving problems with conversion
factors.

Steps to Solving the Problem

If a person weighs 164 lb, what is the body mass in
kilograms?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Analyze the Problem
Given

Need

164 lb

Kilograms

Step 2 Write a plan to convert the given unit to

the needed unit.
lb

USMetric
Factor

kilograms

Steps to Solving the Problem

If a person weighs 164 lb, what is the body mass in
kilograms?
Step 3 State the equalities and conversion factors.

Step 4 Set up the problem to cancel units and

calculate the answer.

Learning Check
How many minutes are 2.5 h?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Analyze the Problem.
Given

Need

2.5 h

minutes

Step 2 Write a plan to convert the given unit to

the needed unit.
hour

time
factor

minutes

Solution
How many minutes are 2.5 h?
Step 3 State the equalities and conversion factors.
Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units and
calculate answer.

Using Two or More Factors

Often, two or more conversion factors are required
to obtain the unit needed for the answer.
Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Additional conversion factors are placed in the

setup to cancel each preceding unit.

Example: Problem Solving

How many minutes are in 1.6 days?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Analyze the Problem.
Given

Need

1.6 days

minutes

Step 2 Write a plan to convert the given unit to

the needed unit.
days

time
factor 1

time
factor 2

min

Example: Problem Solving

How many minutes are in 1.6 days?
Step 3 State the equalities and conversion factors.

Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units and

calculate answer.

Density
compares the mass of an object to its volume.
is the mass of a substance divided by its volume.
are measured in g/L for gases.
are measured in g/cm3 or g/mL for solids and liquids.

Density expression:

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Sink or Float
Ice floats in water because the density of ice is less
than the density of water.
Aluminum sinks in water because its density is
greater than the density of water.

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Densities of Common Substances

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Calculating Density
If a 0.258-g sample of HDL has a volume of 0.215 cm3,
what is the density, in g/cm3, of the HDL sample?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Analyze the Problem.
Given

Need

0.258 g HDL
density in g/cm3 of HDL
0.215 cm3 HDL

Step 2 Write the density expression.

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Calculating Density
If a 0.258-g sample of HDL has a volume of 0.215 cm 3,
what is the density, in g/cm3, of the HDL sample?
Step 3 Express mass in grams and volume in
milliliters (mL) or cm3.

Step 4 Substitute mass and volume into the density

expression and calculate the density.

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Learning Check
Osmium is a very dense metal. What is its
density in g/cm3 if 50.0 g of osmium has a
volume of 2.22 cm3?
A. 2.25 g/cm3
B. 22.5 g/cm3
C. 111 g/cm3

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Measuring Density of Solids

Volume displacement is the volume of a solid
calculated from the volume of water displaced when
it is submerged.

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Measuring Density
Measure the mass of the solid before submerging it in
water to determine its volume.
The density of this zinc object is calculated from its
mass and volume.

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Learning Check
What is the density (g/cm3) of 48.0 g of a metal if the level of
water in a graduated cylinder rises from 25.0 mL to 33.0 mL
after the metal is added?
A. 0.17 g/cm3
B. 6.0 g/cm3
C. 380 g/cm3

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Problem Solving using Density

Density can be used as a conversion factor.
A density of 3.8 g/mL, can be written as an equality,

or written as conversion factors.

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Density as a Conversion Factor

If the density of milk is 1.04 g/mL, how many grams
of milk are in 0.50 qt of milk?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Analyze the Problem.

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Density as a Conversion Factor

If the density of milk is 1.04 g/mL, how many grams
of milk are in 0.50 qt of milk?
Step 2 Write a plan to calculate needed quantity.
volume USMetric
factor

density
factor

mass

Step 3 Write equalities and conversion factors.

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Density as a Conversion Factor

If the density of milk is 1.04 g/mL, how many grams
of milk are in 0.50 qt of milk?
Step 4 Set up the problem to calculate the needed
quantity.
0.50 qt x 946 mL x 1.04 g = 490 g milk
1 qt
1 mL
2 SF
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Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity
is the relationship between the density of a substance
and the density of water.
is determined by dividing the density of the sample
by the density of water.
is a unitless quantity.

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