Control
Prepare by Tiew Foo Chuan
Atmosphere
Air Pressure
Pressure
(mm/ Hg)
760
Temperature
(degree
Celsius)
15.0
18,000
380
-5.3
34,000
190
-62.3
48,000
95
-67.3
63,000
47
-67.04
The distance between individual air particles increases with altitude resulting
in fewer particles per unit volume.
DENSITY.
As the air becomes thinner/less dense, it creates less resistance to
given speed.
As a result, airplanes can fly more efficiently at higher altitudes with
LESS FUEL.
However if airplane is too high (>60,000ft), AIR DENSITY TOO LOW or
ZERO AIR DENSITY it will cause LIFT force highly reduce or no Lift
force. This condition is dangerous where it can cause airplane lose it
control (STALL) .
Pressure is the weight of the air pressing down on the earth surface.
The unit for pressure is pound per square inch ( psi ) and inches of mercury.
Warm air rises and cooler air sink which causes convention current.
The temperature influence the maximum amount of water vapour that the air
can hold.
The higher altitude and lower temperature , the lower the humility.
Airfoils
Shape design to produce LIFT eg Wing , tail surface.
Leading
edge-
Chord line- imaginary straight line drawn from leading edge to trailing edge.
Wings are made of one or more airfoils , thus airfoils are also known as wing
sections.
Zero lift angle of attack the acute angle formed between the relative wind
striking an airfoil and the zero lift line of the airfoil. The chord line of the
airfoil is often substituted for the zero lift line.
Absolute angle of attack The angle of attack of an airfoil, measure from the
altitude of zero lift.
Critical angle of attack The angle of attacked at which the flow about an
airfoil changes abruptly as shown by corresponding abrupt changes in the lift
and drag/
Geometric angle of attack The acute angle formed between of the chord
line and the direction of flight.
Aspect Ratio
Four Forces
Airfoil Contamination
Speed of sound
Speed of Sound
Subsonic Flight
As long as it can still move , the spare between molecules will effectively not
change = density remain constant.
Air pressure travel faster to get to the other at same-time as bypass air.
Supersonic Flight
At supersonic speed ( more than Mach 1 ) air can be compressed and its
density increased.
Bernoullis principle :-
Transonic Flight
Sound wave form and more around = large changes in trim and stability
( control buffering ).
Aerodynamic Heating
At the speed of aircraft increases above Mach 1 , the stagnation area sees
great temperature rises , less effect at high altitude.
Area rule
The area rule came into being in the early 1950s when production fighter
designs began pushing ever closer to the sound barrier.
The drag on these aircraft increased substantially when the planes traveled
near Mach 1, a phenomenon known as the transonic drag rise.
This increase in drag is due to the formation of shock waves over portions of
the vehicle, which typically begins around Mach 0.8, and this drag increase
reaches a maximum near Mach 1.
Axis of a aircraft
Rudder Pedal
Autopilot
The original use of an AFCS was to provide pilot relief during tedious stages of
flight, such as high-altitude cruising.
Advanced autopilots can do much more, carrying out even highly precise
maneuvers, such as landing an aircraft in conditions of zero visibility.
The three basic control surfaces that affect an airplane's attitude. The first
are theelevators, which are devices on the tail of a plane that control pitch
(the swaying of an aircraft around a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
direction of motion).
Therudderis also located on the tail of a plane. When the rudder is tilted to
starboard (right), the aircraft yaws -- twists on a vertical axis -- in that
direction.
When the rudder is tilted to port (left), the craft yaws in the opposite
direction.
Finally,aileronson the rear edge of each wing roll the plane from side to
side.
The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.
Gyroscopes (or other position sensors) on the wing detect this deflection and
send a signal to the autopilotcomputer.
The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the
wings are no longer level.
The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control theaircraft's
ailerons. The signal is a very specific command telling the servo to make a
precise adjustment.
Each servo has a smallelectric motorfitted with a slip clutch that, through a
bridle cable, grips the aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control
surfaces move accordingly.
As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back
toward level.
The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on
the wing detects that the wings are once again level.
This loop, shown above in the block diagram, works continuously, many times a
second, much more quickly and smoothly than a human pilot could.
Two- and three-axis autopilots obey the same principles, employing multiple
processors that control multiple surfaces.
Autopilots can and do fail. A common problem is some kind of servo failure,
either because of a badmotoror a bad connection.
A position sensor can also fail, resulting in a loss of input data to the autopilot
computer.
Fortunately, autopilots for manned aircraft are designed as a failsafe -- that is,
no failure in the automatic pilot can prevent effective employment of manual
override.
To override the autopilot, a crew member simply has to disengage the system,
either by flipping a power switch or, if that doesn't work, by pulling the
autopilotcircuitbreaker.
Pilots must know how to use every feature of an AFCS, but they must also
know how to turn it off and fly without it.
They also have to adhere to a rigorous maintenance schedule to make sure all
sensors and servos are in good working order.
The Boeing 737 is fitted with six hydraulically powered spoilers on both
wings.
These are divided into two ground spoilers and four flight spoilers.
The ground spoilers only operate while the aircraft is on the ground while
the flight spoilers operate during different phases of flight and can have
multiple functions.
The flight spoilers consist of four panels located on the aft upper wing.
There are two ways in which the flight spoilers are used and controlled
during flight operations, namely:
- manual mode control
- automatic mode control
In manual mode the spoilers are operated by pilot inputs and help
decelerate the aircraft or increase the rate of descent.
When the flight spoiler panels are raised into the air stream they spoil or
reduce lift and apply drag on the wing.
The combination of these two effects (lift reduction and drag) is utilized
into providing lateral control of the airplane. Both the flight spoilers and
ground spoilers are powered by hydraulic system A and B.
Yaw Damper
Ayaw damperis a device used on many aircraft (usually jets and turboprops)
to damp (reduce) the rolling andyawing oscillations known as theDutch
rollmode.
The use of a yaw damper helps to provide a better ride for passengers, and on
some aircraft the yaw damper is a required piece of equipment to ensure that
the aircraft stability
Agust
Gust
Some
Mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic
method of controlling an aircraft.
They were used in early aircraft and are currently used in small aircraft
where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.
Hydro-mechanical
With hydraulic flight control systems, the aircraft's size and performance are
limited by economics rather than a pilot's muscular strength.
Themechanical circuit, which links the cockpit controls with the hydraulic
circuits. Like the mechanical flight control system, it consists of rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains.
Commands from the computers are also input without the pilot's knowledge
to stabilize the aircraft and perform other tasks. Electronics for aircraft flight
control systems are part of the field known asavionics.
When airplane approaches the stall , the air flow across the upper cambered
surface of the wing ceases to flow smoothly. It loses contact with the wing
surface and it becomes turbulent. ( Pre stall Buffet)
A Stick Shaker is a mechanical devices that shakes the control column to warn
of the onset of stall.
Stall warning system often involve input from broad range of senses and
system include a dedicated angle of attached sensor.
The acute angle the wing chord makes with the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft is called the angle of incidence or the angle of wing setting.
Nitrogen System
The Nitrogen Generating System is an overboard inert gas system that uses an
air separation module to separate oxygen and nitrogen from the air .
After the to components of the air separation , the nitrogen rich is supplies to
the center fuel tank and oxygen rich air is vented overboard.
Nitrogen is uses to apply a push force to the left pilot elevator control
quadrant . This system is capable od delivering approximately 8 to 10 pushes
to the control column.
Automatic Ignition
The airflow through the engine become reduced to a point where an unstable
air fuel ratio occurs so that burning in the power plant combustor is not self
sufficient for the resulting unstable air fuel mixture, actuation of the ignition
system will sustain combustion until the aircraft reduces the nose high or stall
attitude to a point where the airflow through the engine is sufficient for self
sustained combustion.
Balancing
Balance and trim tabs move in the opposite direction to the main control.
The force generated on the tab then works to assist the movement of the
main control.
The purpose of the trim tab is to adjust the main control position in flight so
that there are no feedback forces. ( trim the aircraft so that it can fly hand
off).
The flight control systems need to be rigged from to time so that they carry
out their function correctly.
It will also vary depending by a cable system , push-pull rods or fly by wire.
The AMM chapter 27 gives the proper procedure for rigging the particular
control system.
The general procedure for both manually operated and power-operated flight
control system is :i) Refer to AMM.
ii) Set the control system to neutral.
iii) Check cable tensions.
iv) Do a sense of movement check.
v) Do a freedom of movement or static friction check.
vi) Do a range of movement check.
vii) Loose article check
viii) Duplicate Inspection.
Refer to AMM
Jacked and levelled the aircraft and placed in the rigging position.
Stable aircraft temperature , +- 3 C along the cable for at least one hours.
Tripped off appropriate electrical circuits and place warning notices on the
control surfaces and circuit breaker.
Before disconnecting drive shaft , marks the angular position of the joints to
endure correct alignment on reconnection.
Place rigging pins or rigging fixtures on the pilot controls at the control
surface end of the system an intermediate able-quadrants or linkages in the
system.
When new control cables are fitted , tighten to a higher than normal cable
tension , then operated through their full travel for a given number of times.
When rigging is complete , make sure that each rigging pin can be removed
and replaced easily. This shows that cables are correctly adjusted for length
and correctly tensioned.
Sense Check
The cockpit controls are moved and a check made to make sure that the
control surfaces move in the correct sense.
The control surface position indicator in the cockpit must also move in the
correct sense.
On most large aircraft the spoilers move asymmetrically when the ailerons
are moved.
Pull the control system through its full range of movement using a spring
balance attached to the control column and rudder pedals.
The force require to operate the controls should not exceed that given in the
table.
Move the pilot control in both directions from the neutral position and
measure the range of travel using a ruler.
I incorrect, adjust the correct surface stops (primary stops) . The cockpit
control stops (secondary stops) are then adjusted to a specified clearance.
Lock all the system points where previous adjustment have been made.
This should be done after every job has been completed on an aircraft.
Inspect the area to make sure that no tools, spares, locking wire, cleaning
cloths etc. have been left behind.
Duplicate Inspection
All the parts of a flying control system are generally classed as VITAL POINTS
and if disturbed will require a duplicate inspection.