MAW 1 7 53 : ADVANCED ROCK MECHANICS &

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Chapter 1.0: Introduction to engineering geology
Chapter 2.0: Rock classification
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Chapter 3.0: Weathering & soils
Chapter 4.0: Geological structures & discontinuities
in rock.
Chapter 5.0: Ground Investigation.

ROCK
FAMILY

IGNEOUS

SEDIMENTARY

METAMORPHIC

Material
origin

Crystalline from
molten magma

Erosional debris on
Earths surface

Altered by heat
and/or pressure

Environment

In earth crust; & as

lava flow

Deposition basins;
mainly sea

Mostly deep inside

mountain chains

Rock
texture

Mosaic of
interlocking crystals

Mostly granular and

cemented

Mosaic of
interlocking crystals

Rock
structure

Non-bedded
(structureless)

Layered, bedding
planes

Crystal orientation
due to pressure

Rock
strength

Uniform high strength

Variable, low; planar

weaknesses

Variable high; planar

weaknesses

Major types

Granite, basalt,
pumice

Sandstone, limestone,
shale

Schist, slate, gneiss,

quatzite

Table 1.5: Rock classification [Waltham, 2002].

Metamorphic Rocks:
Metamorphic rocks are created by changes
induced at high temperature (up to 6000C) and/or
high pressures (around 500 MPa at 20 km depth).
These changes (metamorphism) take place in solid
state.
Pressure & temperature must act for a long time.
The type of metamorphic rock produced depends on
the original rock material that was metamorphosed
& the temperature & pressure condition which were
imposed.

MAIN METAMORPHIC ROCKS Derived from clay or mixture of rocks

Name

Grain size

Main minerals

Texture

Strength

UCS (MPa)

Hornfels

Fine

Mica, quartz, clay

minerals

Uniform

Very strong

200

Slate

Fine

Mica, quartz, clay

minerals

Cleavage

Low shear,
high flexural

20 - 120

Schist

Coarse

Mica, quartz

Schistosity

Very low
shear

20 - 70

Gneiss

Coarse

Quartz, feldspar,
mafics, mica

Foliation

Strong

100

Table 2.11: Main types of metamorphic rock [Waltham,

2002].

Metamorphic Rocks:
Minerals in rock are stable (chemically &
physically) at specific range of temperatures &
pressures. When this range is exceeded
metamorphism can occur in rock.
Two types of changes can occur that differentiate
the metamorphosed rock from its original rock:
Melting & recrystallisation of minerals that form
new types of mineral.
Physical change in shape & rearrangement of
minerals in rock.

Metamorphic Rocks:
Types of metamorphism are:
Regional metamorphism involves high pressure &
temperature. Occurs in mountain chains due to
continental collision on plate boundaries or, on deep
seated rock body (few 10 of kms). Extend over a large
areas.
Thermal or contact metamorphism involves high
temperature only. Occurs around igneous intrusions
where rock has been baked.
Dynamic metamorphism - less common & very
localised. Occur in fault zones where there are relative
movements between large rock blocks.

Overburden Surface

Overburden
stress P = gh.

Deep seated
rock intrusive
igneous rock

Rock body deep in the earths crust is subjected to a

prolong high pressure (overburden stress) &
temperature, these can metamorphose the rock.

Fault - relative movements (vertical or horizontal)

occurs between large rock blocks (produce high T)

Fold relative movement occurs between folded

beddings. Friction between folded strata produces
high temperature & occasionally some pressure.

Progressive regional metamorphism, from low-grade

(slate) to high-grade metamorphism (gneiss)

Metamorphic Rocks:
Grade of metamorphism is the overall extent of
change, notably in the sequence (within regional
metamorphism) from slate to schist to gneiss.
The grades are L.OW, MEDIUM & HIGH
To change shale slate it requires low grade
metamorphism; to change slate schist it
requires medium grade; to change granite
gneiss it requires high grade.

The typical transition in mineralogy that result from

progressive grade in metamorphism

Metamorphic Rocks:
New minerals are formed at the expense of less
stable minerals, in the new conditions of high
pressure & temperature.
Most important changes are clay minerals micas
feldspars & mafics. Micas are the most
significant minerals in metamorphic rocks & only
change to feldspars at the highest grade of
metamorphism.
Directional pressure within the solid state creates
mineral orientation within the regionally
metamorphosed rocks. New minerals grow in the
line of least resistance (perpendicular to max. P).

Metamorphic Rocks:
Planar weaknesses in the foliated metamorphic
rocks are created by the parallel micas splitting
along their minerals cleavage causing rock
cleavage (also known as slaty cleavage) &
schistosity.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have stronger
isotropic structure. These include hornfels, formed
by thermal metamorphism of clay without high
pressure; also marble & gneiss with little or no
mica.

Rearrangement of minerals in direction

perperdicular to max. pressure & change of mineral
shape after metamorphism

Metamorphic texture rotation of platy or elongated

mineral grains (e.g. mica in granite)

Metamorphic texture flattened rock exhibiting

distorted quartz grains.

Minerals arrangement in metamorphic rock graphite

(original rock contains high % of mica)

Metamorphic rock such as mica schist, minerals arrangement

after metamorphism is more distinctive, this is due to original
rock (shale) contains high % of flaky mineral like mica (M).
Quartz, massive mineral, does not display any change in shape.

Metamorphic rock like gneiss, rearrangement of minerals after

metamorphism is less distinctive, for its original rock (granite)
contains high % of massive minerals (quartz, feldspar &
hornblende) & less mica.

Regional & contact metamorphic rock SCHIST

(originates from shale or slate)

Contact metamorphic rock SLATE (originates from

shale)

Contact metamorphic rock QUARTZITE (originates

from sandstone)

Regional metamorphic rock MARBLE (originates

from limestone)

Regional metamorphic rock DOLOMITE (originates

from limestone)

Table 2.12: Types of

metamorphic
rock, texture & grade
of metamorphism
(McLean & Gribble 1980)

Schist:
Type is regional metamorphic, medium grade,
foliated.
Texture is coarse grained mosaic with banding &
conspicuous parallel orientation.
Mineralogy is micas 35%, chlorite 20%, quartz 25%,
others 20%.
Weathering, slow alteration to clays.
Strength is anisotropic: compressive strength varies
by factor of 5 across or oblique to schistosity. Very
low shear strength; weakest with higher chlorite or
mica content. UCS 20 70 MPa, SBP 1 3 MPa.

Schist:
Value is minimal.
Varieties slate & phyllite.
One unique texture of most metamorphic rocks is
arrangement of minerals in certain direction flow
texture.
This renders most metamorphic rocks to be
anisotropic in terms of properties; strength, SBP,
permeability & hardness.

 Shear & compressive strength vary significantly

when stress is applied in different direction.
Stability of cut slope is very critical in this isotropic
rocks (especially slate & schist), mainly due to
variability of strength & permeability. Shear failure
can occur along rock cleavage (e.g. platy micas).

Effect of minerals arrangement (schistosity in schist) on strength

& deformation of rock samples tested at different loading
orientation with respect to schistosity.

High permeability
along mineral
cleavage

Low permeability
perpendicular to
mineral cleavage

Effect of minerals arrangement (schistosity in

schist) on permeability.