Adolescence

Adolescent Behavior
and Development

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 Adolescence

Presented By
Lubna Ishtiaque
Aqsa Mukhtar
Rabia Saleem
Marwa Anwar

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Adolescence

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Adolescence

Adolescence

 Adolescence is the period extending from

the onset of puberty to early adulthood
between ages 12 and 20
 Puberty is the time when the reproductive
system matures

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Adolescence

Early Adolescence

VISIT INTRODUCE

11 to 14 •Family Time Together

YEARS •Peer Relationships
•Support System
•Staying Safe
•Teen Mental Health
•Conflict Resolution Skills
•Healthy Dating
•Gaining Independence

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 Adolescence

Physical Maturation

 Secondary sex characteristics are the physical

characteristics other than genital, that indicate sexual
maturity, such as body hair, breasts, and deepened
voice

 Adaptation at puberty requires an integration of

biological, psychological, and social changes

 The degree to which one’s body matches the desired or

socially valued body build of the culture influences
social acceptance by peers and adults

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 Adolescence
Adolescence
Physical Changes

•Male
Changes
•Gains weight
•Grows body hair
•Penis and testicles
develop •Female Changes
•Voice ‘breaks’
•Gains weight
•Shoulders broaden •Grows body hair
•Skin and hair change •Periods start
•Becomes taller •Breasts develop
•Shape changes
•Skin and hair change
•Becomes taller

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Adolescence

Adolescence
Intellectual – Adolescence can usually work things out
logically. Decision making skills take time to develop in
adulthood
Emotional – hormones may be out of balance and this can lead
to mood swings or aggressive behaviour. Lack of confidence
and low self-esteem can be a problem at this age
Social-
Social become increasingly independent of their families and
more dependent on their peer group. They also begin to explore
their sexuality which includes testing out relationships and
sexual behaviour with others

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
Adolescence


Decision making, hormones, logically, independent, peer group,



mood swings, Lack of confidence, low self esteem, sexuality,

relationships

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 Adolescence
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development

SENSORY MOTOR
0 - 2 YEARS object permanence

PREOPERATIONAL egocentrism
2 - 6 YEARS symbol development

CONCRETE concepts can be manipulated

OPERATIONAL
7 - 12 YEARS conservation

FORMAL
OPERATIONS test abstract hypothesis
12 YEARS manipulate symbolic concepts
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 Adolescence

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Views

“With the advent of formal intelligence, thinking takes

wings, and it is not surprising that at first this unexpected
power is both used and abused”

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Adolescence

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Views

“It is the metaphysical age par excellence; the self is

strong enough to reconstruct the universe and
big enough to incorporate it”

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 Adolescence

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Views

“The life plan of young girls is more closely linked to

personal relationships, and their hypothetico-deductive
systems take on the form more of a hierarchy of affective
values than of a theoretical system…their life plan is
more concerned with people.”

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Adolescence

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Views

“Reason, which expresses the highest forms of

equilibrium, reunites intelligence and affectivity”

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 Adolescence

Cognitive Development Personality Development

“The upholding of a steady

FORMAL
OPERATIONS equilibrium during the adolescent
12 YEARS process is in itself abnormal”

test abstract hypothesis

manipulate symbolic concepts

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Adolescence

 Emotional Development
 Descriptions of adolescence often refer to new
levels of emotional variability, moodiness, and
emotional outbursts
 Some researchers have questioned whether
adolescence really brings the peaks and valleys of
emotional intensity that are stereotypically linked
to this time of life
 Given the likelihood of a more differentiated range
of emotions during adolescence, a major task
during this time is to gain a tolerance of one’s
emotionality

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Adolescence

 Emotional Development: Eating Disorders

 Eating disorders are an example of internalizing
problems, turning one’s frustration, anger, or fear
inward on the self
 Anorexia is characterized by a fear of gaining
weight, refusal to maintain a minimally normal
body weight, and perceptions of one’s body as
overweight in general or in specific area
 Bulimia involves spurts of binging and overeating
followed by the use of different strategies to
prevent the absorption of food, such as induced
vomiting, the use of laxatives, or strenuous
exercise

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Adolescence

 Emotional Development: Eating Disorders (cont.)

 Origins of eating disorders are not fully understood:
A preoccupation with body appearance may be
provoked by the relatively rapid physical changes
associated with puberty
 Because of the seriousness and widespread nature of
eating disorders, public health experts are
working to create a more positive acceptance of
people of various body types and shapes, with
less focus on thinness

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Adolescence

 Emotional Development: Depression (cont.)

 Major Depressive disorder is characterized by a
person who has experience 5 or more symptoms
for at least two weeks: depressed mood or
irritable mood most of the day; decreased interest
in pleasurable activities; changes in weight or
perhaps failure to make necessary weight gains in
adolescence; sleep problems; psychomotor
agitation or retardation; fatigue or loss of energy,
feeling of worthlessness or abnormal amounts of
guilt; reduced concentration and decision-making
ability; and repeated suicidal ideation, attempts ,
or plans of suicide

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Adolescence

 Emotional Development: Factors Associated

with Adolescent Depression & Gender
Differences in Depression (cont.)
 Adolescents are relatively inexperienced in coping
with these kind of stressors
 Most studies find no differences in depression
between prepubescent boys and girls;
however, during the period from about age 11
to 15, gender differences are systematically
noted and continue to be evident into
adulthood, with depression more common in
females than in males

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Adolescence

 Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and

Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and
Norms
 Before the adolescent period, it is important to have
friends, but not as important to be a member of a
definable group
 Cliques are small friendship groups of 5 to 10
friends, and these groups provide the framework
for frequent interactions both within school and
in the neighborhood
 A crowd refers to a large group that is usually
recognized by a few predominant characteristics
such as their orientation toward academics,
involvement in athletics, use of drugs, or
involvement in deviant behavior

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Adolescence

 Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and

Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and Norms
(cont.)
 Popularity and acceptance into a peer group at the
high school may be based on one or more of the
following characteristics: good looks, athletic
ability, social class, academic performance, future
goals, affiliation with a religious, racial, or ethnic
group, special talents, involvement with drugs or
deviant behavior, general alienation from school
 Membership in cliques is relatively stable, but
always vulnerable to change

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Adolescence

 Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and

Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and
Norms (cont.)
 Important skills that are learned by becoming a
member of a peer group are the assessment of
group structure and the selection of the
particular group or groups with which one
would like to affiliate
 Membership in an adolescent peer group is a
forerunner of membership in an adult social
group

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 Adolescence

Sexual Relationships

 The Transition into Sexualized Relationships

 Most young people are involved in a variety of
romantic relationships during adolescence,
including dating, feeling of tenderness and
love, and deepening commitments
 Dating Relationships provide the initial context
for most sexual activity.

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 Adolescence

Sexual Relationships

 First Intercourse or the transition into sexual

activity may take place in very different
contexts for adolescents
 Usually the earlier the transition into sexual
activity and intercourse the more likely
the act is to be part of a profile of high-
risk behaviors, including alcohol use,
drug use, and delinquent activity

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Sexual Orientation

 One might assume that sexual orientation –
heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual – begins to
take shape in early adolescence; the research on
this point suggests an earlier and more
differentiated path
 For sexual – minority youth, two aspects of a sexual
orientation have been identified:
 Self-labeling – applying a label such as gay, lesbian,
or bisexual to one-self
 Disclosure – sharing this information with others

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts

Associated with Sexuality
 The sexual system is one of the most problematic
components of psychosocial development for
young people in the United States
 Most parents do not feel comfortable discussing
sexuality with their children.
 Sexually Transmitted Disease
 About 25% of sexually active teens contract a
sexually transmitted disease each year.
 Teens are especially at risk for Chlamydia, genital
herpes, and gonorrhea

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts

Associated with Sexuality (cont.)
 Unwanted Sexual Attention
 Often teen do not find the emotional closeness and
understanding they may seek in a sexually
intimate relationship
 Many instances of unwanted sexual contact occur on
the first date or in a dating relationship
 The lack of supervision and monitoring by adults as
well as the lack of opportunity to talk about
sexuality with them can place adolescents at risk
for early sexual experiences that are abusive or
associated with negative feelings

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts

Associated with Sexuality (cont.)
 Contraception
 In spite of the fact that many parents and teachers
do not provide information about the use of
contraceptives as part of their education about
sex and sexual behavior, the use of
contraceptives by U.S. teens has increased
 The use of contraceptives is associated with
religious beliefs, family attitudes and behaviors,
and peer norms

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early

Adolescence
 Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy
 Poverty
 Increased Risk of Child Abuse
 Increase risk of birth complications associated with lack of
prenatal care
 Adolescent Fathers
 Although the focus on adolescent pregnancy has been on
girls, there is growing concern about adolescent
fathers. While most fathers of babies born to teen
mothers are within 2 years of the mother’s age, about
20% are 5 or more years older than the mother

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Adolescence

 Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early

Adolescence (cont.)
 Most studies of adolescent pregnancy find that,
contrary to the stereotype, many fathers remain in
contact with the mother and child in the first
months after the child is born
 However, by the time the children are in school,
contact drops off
 Fathering a child is bound to stimulate conflicting
feelings of pride, guilt, and anxiety in the
adolescent boy
 Little systematic research has been done on the
attitudes, knowledge, or behaviors of adolescent
fathers or the impact of fatherhood on a teenage
boy’s subsequent development

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 Adolescence

IDENTITY

WHO am
I ?????

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 Adolescence
Developm ent of Self-Co ncep t in Ado lescen ce

 Adolescents incorporate
psychological characteristics and
social relationships into self-
descriptions
 Adolescents add more categories to
their self-description;
contradictions in self-description
peak at about age 14 and then
decline in later adolescence


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 Adolescence

Identity
Some Contemporary Thoughts About


Identity
 Identity formation begins with appearance of
attachment - development of sense of self,
& emergence of independence in infancy
 Healthy identities are flexible, adaptive &
open to changes in society, in relationships
& in careers
 It is long, synthesizing process with
tremendous amount of conflict &
resolution

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Adolescence

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 Adolescence

Identity Statuses &

Development
 James Marcia outlined four identity
statuses, or modes of resolution
following a crisis which is defined as
period of identity development during
which adolescent is choosing among
meaningful alternatives; also involved is
commitment in which adolescents show
personal investment in what they are
going to do


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Adolescence
Identity Statuses &
Development
 Identity diffusion: adolescents have not yet
experienced a crisis or have made any
commitments
 Identity foreclosure: adolescents who have
made commitment but have not experienced
crisis
 Identity moratorium: commitments are either
absent or vaguely defined
 Identity achievement: adolescents who have
undergone crisis & have made commitment


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Adolescence

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 Adolescence

Relationships with P arents

 Teens spend more time with mothers, have more conflicts with them, and report
them as being more supportive and knowing them better
 Adverse relationships with fathers are often associated with depression in
adolescents
 Good relations with fathers contribute to adolescents’ psychological well-being
 Even though teens spend less time with parents, they continue to maintain love,
loyalty, and respect for their parents
 Conflict greatest during puberty and declines in later adolescence
 Conflict occurs between what parent thinks they should control such as curfews
and chores versus what teenager thinks they should control
 Mothers encourage teen to do homework and clean room
 Less conflict as teens get older; more compromise
 Little evidence to support generation gap between parents and teens; most teens
are similar to parents with their value system
 Teens are not in constant state of rebellion against their parents


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Adolescence

 The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus

Alienation
 Group Identity – the positive pole of the psychosocial
crises of early adolescence in which the person finds
membership in and value convergence with a peer
group.
 Cognitive Processes that Support the Formation of Group
Identity
 Group Representations
 Group Operations
 Reflective Thinking about Groups
 Four Dimensions of Group Identity
 Categorizing People and Recognizing Distinguishing
Features of Group Members

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Adolescence

 The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus

Alienation (cont.)
 Experiencing a Sense of History as a Member of a
Group
 Emotional Investment in the Group
 Social Evaluation of One’s Group and its Relation to
Other Groups
 Alienation – withdrawal or separation of people or their
affections from an object or position of former
attachment
 The Contribution of Alienation to Group Identity and
Individual Identity is important
 A period of feeling alone and lonely may help teens
appreciate how good social acceptance feels and
how important it is for their well being.

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 Adolescence EIGHTAGES OFMAN
Erik H. Erikson
In Childhood and Society
GENERATIVITY
VS
STAGNATION

VII. Adulthood
INTIMACY CARE
VS
ISOLATION

VI. Young Adulthood

IDENTITY LOVE
VS
ROLECONFUSION

V. Puberty andAdolescence
INDUSTRY FIDELITY
VS
INFERIORITY

IV. Latency
COMPETENCE
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 Adolescence

The Psychosocial
Crisis:
 The assessment of the importance of certain
content areas in relation to others influences
the use of resources, the direction of certain
decisions, and the kinds of experiences that
may be perceived as most personally rewarding
or threatening
Both the content and evaluation components of
identity may change over the life course

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 Adolescence
The Central Process: Peer
Pressure
 Peer pressure refers to the demand for
conformity to group norms and a
demonstration of commitment and
loyalty to group members
 Peer pressure is often used with a
negative connotation, suggesting
that young people behave in ways
that go against their beliefs or
values because of a fear of peer
rejection
 However peer pressure can have an
alternative meaning, one that
highlights the emerging role of the
peer group in the radius of
significant others


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Adolescence

 The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.)

 Affiliating with a Peer Group – provides the context
within which the crises of group identity versus
alienation is resolved
 Peer Pressure in Specific Areas – time spent with
peers, school, and family; academic achievement;
drug use; engaging in misconduct; sexual activity;
religious participation; community service; or
preference in dress, music, or entertainment
 Conflicts Between Belonging and Personal Autonomy
– peer groups do not command total conformity;
most depend on the unique characteristics of their
members to lend definition and vigor to the roles
that emerge within them

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Adolescence

 The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.)

 Ethnic Group Identity – knowing that
one is a member of a certain ethnic
group; recognizing that aspects of
one’s thoughts, feelings, and
actions are influenced by ethnic
membership; and taking the ethnic-
group values, outlook, and the
goals into account when making
life choices

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Adolescence

 Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use

 Factors Associated with Alcohol Use
 Physical Effects of Alcohol – death may result from
chugging, when combined with other drugs, and
when driving under the influence
 Assessment of Risk – adolescents do not view alcohol
drinking as risky and may use it as sensation
seeking behavior
 Reference Groups – the two reference groups that
influence the acceptability of drinking and the
manner in which alcohol is consumed are the
family and the peer group

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Adolescence

 Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use (cont.)

 Early Entry into Alcohol and Drug Use –
 Children who perceived that many of their friends
had been drinking and who experienced peer
pressure to drink were more likely to drink
 Children who were in classrooms where a larger
number of children reported drinking were also at
greatest risk of drinking.
 Perceptions of the amount of drinking that occurred
in the family were also an important predictor of
early alcohol use
 Binge Drinking

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Adolescence

 Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy

 Achieving a psychological sense of autonomy
from one’s parents must be understood as a
multidimensional task that is accomplished
gradually over the course of later adolescence
and early adulthood
 Autonomy is an ability regulate one’s own
behavior with undue control from or
dependence on one’s parents
 Autonomy requires independence of thoughts,
emotions, and actions

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 Adolescence
Early Adolescence
Counseling for
Parents Address parents’
concerns about
What do you think of your teenager’s friends? safety while still
helping them
encourage their
teen’s
How are you monitoring your teenager?
independence
How do you negotiate rules of behavior?

What kind of activities does your child enjoy?

What most concerns you about your teenager’s safety?

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 Adolescence
Early Adolescence
Counseling for
Youth
With independence
Whom do you turn to for advice and encouragement? comes the
responsibility for
staying safe.
Whom do you go to for help if you’re having trouble in your re

What do you do to stay safe?

What after-school activities are you involved with?

What do you and your friends like to do?

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Adolescence

 Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy (cont.)

 Beyond these physical requirements, autonomy
involves a psychological sense of confidence
about one’s unique point of view and an
ability to express opinions and beliefs that
may differ from those of one’s parents.
 Differentiation, the family-system concept, has
been associated with psychosocial maturity
and a healthy emergence of individuality in
adolescence

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Adolescence

 Autonomy from Parents: Leaving Home, the

College Experience, and Self Sufficiency
 Living away form one’s parent’s household may be a
symbol of independence; however, it is not as readily
achievable in the age range of 18 to 24 as it was in
the past
 Parents and adolescent children have different views
about the age at which children are expected to leave
home
 Economic factors and social norms play a significant
role in the timing of leaving home
 Going away to college is a transition between parent’s
home and living on your own

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Adolescence

 Autonomy from Parents:

 College freshmen express a variety of attitudes that
suggest different views about their desire to be
independent from their family
 Revision of Attachment with Parents is revisited when
entering college
 For students who live on campus, preoccupation with
thoughts and concerns about their parents tends to
diminish over the course of the first semester, while
new relationships form and a new confidence in their
independent decision making builds
 Making independent decisions, taking responsibility for
one’s actions, and achieving some degree of financial
independence is part of establishing a sense of self-
sufficiency

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Adolescence

 Gender Identity: The Role of Culture

 Acquisition of a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values
about oneself as a man or a woman in many areas of
social life, including intimate relationship, family,
work, community, and religion
 All cultures construct gender-differentiated roles, and
people expect one another to behave in certain ways
because they are male or female
 Others argue that men and women should be considered
equal, but that they should be treated in ways that
take into account differences in their needs and
capacities

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Adolescence

 Gender Identity:
 Notions of physical attractiveness become more
salient during this time
 Maturation of the hormonal system, which
influences emotional arousal as well as sexual
urges, contributes to the development of one’s
gender identity
 If later adolescents become aware that their gender
prevents them from having access to resources,
influence, and decision-making authority, they
are likely to experience a decline in their gender-
role preference

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Adolescence

Ethnic Identity

 Ethnic identity is a feeling of membership

in an ethnic or cultural group
 Ethnic identity may serve to alienate some
from larger society
 Parents and teachers can influence self-
esteem in adolescents

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Adolescence

Internalized Morality
 New Cognitive Capacities & Experiences that
Promote Moral Reasoning
 Later adolescents explore the distinction between social
conventions and moral issues
 Later adolescents bring new cognitive capacities to the
arena of moral decision making
 Later adolescents are able to consider the multiple
perspectives that are possible in a moral situation
 They are increasingly aware of the rights and needs of
others, and they are able to step outside the situation
in order to examine how an action may satisfy their
own needs but harm others

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Adolescence

 Internalized Morality:
 Through participation in thought-provoking discussions or
challenging life experiences, moral reasoning can advance
to the next higher level
 Exposure to a diversity of information, relationships, and
worldviews stimulates moral reasoning

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Adolescents
Adolescence Must
Confront
Two Major Tasks
1- Achieving autonomy from their parents


2- Forming an identity – creating an



integral self that harmoniously combines

different aspects of personality.

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 Adolescence

Self-Concept

 1- Adolescents distinguish others’ views of

themselves from their own perceptions.
“Others look at me as laid-back and relaxed, but


really, I’m often nervous and emotional.”

 2- During the earlier years of adolescence,
teenagers may want to view themselves
in a certain way and may feel concerned
when behavior is inconsistent with their
view.
“I’m a sociable person and love to be with people.”


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Adolescence

Psychosocial Crisis
 Individual Identity Versus Identity Confusion
 The Content Component of Identity
 The private self is a sense of self, which refers to
one’s uniqueness and unity, a subjective
experience of being self-reflective
 The public self includes the many roles one plays
and the expectations of others
 The Evaluation Component of Identity
 The significance one places on various aspects of
the identity content

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Adolescence

 The Psychosocial Crisis: Identity Formation

for Males and Females
 Questions have been raised about the process of
identity formation and its outcome for young
men and women in our society
 Some investigators have argued that the concept
of identity as It has been formulated is a
reflection of a male-oriented culture that
focuses heavily on occupation and ideology
rather than on interpersonal commitments

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Adolescence

Psychosocial Crisis
 Men and women appear to handle the process of role
experimentation and identity achievement somewhat
differently
 Other researchers point out that Erikson’s construct of
personal identity is embedded in relational context
 Other evidence of gender differences has been found in the
content of the identity

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 Adolescence
Suicide: When the Ad ol escen t Has No thin g
— E xcept Everyth ing — to Lo se

 Suicide is the third leading cause of

death among adolescents
 Since 1960 suicide rate has tripled
for young people, age 15 to 24
 1 to 2 American adolescents in
10,000 commit suicide each year;
1 in 10 has attempted suicide at
least once

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 Adolescence

Risk Factors in S ui cid e

 Suicidal adolescents experience four

areas of psychological problems: (1)
confusion about the self, (2)
impulsiveness, (3) emotional
instability, and (4) interpersonal
problems (Miller et al., 2007; Rathus
& Miller, 2002)
 Some high achieving teens are rigid
perfectionists who feel depressed
when they compare themselves to
others negatively
 Adolescent suicide attempts more
common after stressful life event

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 Adolescence

Risk Factors in S ui cid e Co ntinu ed

 Stressful life events can include:

breaking up with a
boyfriend/girlfriend, death of a
parent or friend, a family member
leaving home
 Other factors include concerns over
sexuality, school grades, problems at
home, substance abuse, being “found
out” for something like failing grades
or getting arrested
 Suicide runs in families

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 Adolescence

Risk Factors in S ui cid e Co ntinu ed

 Suicidal warning signs include:

belief that it is acceptable to kill
one’s self, drug abuse and other
delinquency, victimization by
bullying, extensive body piercing,
stress, hostility, depression and
other psychological disorders,
heavy smoking, low self-esteem
and increasing age from 11 to 21

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 Adolescence

Ethnicity, S ex, and S uicid e

 Native American and Latino/a teenagers

have highest suicide rates due in part to
stresses they are exposed to and lack of
access to health care
 European American teens are next highest
rate
 African American teens least likely to
attempt or think about suicide
 3 times as many female as males attempt it;
4 times as many males complete a
suicide
 Males use rapid and lethal methods,
females use drugs

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 Adolescence
Self-E steem in Ado lescen ce

 Declines as child progresses from middle childhood to about the

age of 12 or 13
 Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors in video
games; girls want to be thin
 Notion of ideal self may move to reflecting reality as
adolescents develop better skills, they may grow less self-
critical
 Low self-esteem manifests itself in normal ways as well as
harmful ways as in depressed and suicidal teens
 Emotional support from parents and peers important; the more
highly regarded the teen feels the more likely to regard
themselves higher

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Adolescence

Ethnic Identity
Development

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 Adolescence

What is identity
development?

 Identity development is a series of stages

everyone must go through to determine
who they are as an individual.

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 Adolescence
What is ethnic identity
development?

 A sense of group or collective identity

based on one’s perception that he or she
shares a common racial heritage with a
particular racial group
 Racial identity development theory
concerns the psychological implications
of racial-group membership, that is
belief systems that evolve in reaction to
perceived differential racial-group
membership.

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 Adolescence

Conformity

 In this stage, people of color identify strongly

with White Dominant Society, permitting
the White society to define their worth and
value.


 Individuals in this stage often accept negative

stereotypes about themselves and their
group. In addition, they know very little
and are not interested in learning about
their own ethnic heritage or history.


 Such persons usually associate with primarily

White people and have very little to do with
members of their own ethnic group.

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Dissonance

 In this stage, persons have experiences, or

gain insights, that cause them to
question their conforming attitudes, and
cause confusion and conflict.
 They question values of the dominant
culture they have previously held in
high esteem.


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 Adolescence

Dissonance

 They become more aware of racism,

oppression, and stereotyping.
 Ethnic minority individuals may attempt to
develop friendly relations with members
of their own ethnic group with whom
they have previously not been able to
identify.

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 Adolescence

Resistance and
Immersion
 This is a stage of extremes, during which
individuals become immersed in their
own cultural history, values, and life-
style.
 Such persons are highly motivated to
combat oppression, racism, and
prejudice, and may evidence activist
behavior and an increased distrust of the
dominant culture.

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Resistance and
Immersion
 Overall, individuals in this stage attempt to
completely separate themselves from the
dominant group, believing that majority
people are responsible for their negative
life circumstances.


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Introspection

 In this stage, individuals take a hard look

at their total rejection of the dominant
culture and total acceptance of their own
group.
 Individuals often experience conflict and
confusion regarding loyalty to their
cultural groups and their personal
preferences and autonomy.

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Introspection

 Internal conflict is most profound in this

stage, as individuals struggle to find a
balance between what they want for
themselves, based on personal desires,
needs, and aspirations versus what their
own ethnic group expects of them.


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 Adolescence

Personal Identity

 Stage 1: Identity is based on their primary

reference group


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 Adolescence

Group Choice

 Stage 2: Identity selection is often that of

being forced into one group ethnic by
societal standards/ perceptions


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Enmeshment/Denial

 Stage 3: This stage is characterized by

confusion and guilt at having to choose
one ethnic identity and a sense of
dissatisfaction that this does not fully
represent oneself.

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Appreciation

 Stage 4: Reference group orientation

broadens – beginning to expand their
understanding of multiple heritages but
may still maintain one group
identification.


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 Adolescence

Integration

 Stage 5: – individual experience wholeness

and integration. Value of all their racial
and ethnic identities.
 Now able to recognize and appreciate the
complexities and benefits of their
culture (s) and ethnicities.


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 Adolescence

Identity Confusion

 In this stage, a sense of incongruence

(conflict between their perception of
themselves as heterosexual and
realization of gay or lesbian thoughts
and feelings) develops.

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 Adolescence

Identity Comparison

 In this stage the person begins to accept

the possibility of having a
predominantly gay or lesbian
orientation, and moves from confusion
and incongruence toward addressing the
social alienation resulting from a
commitment to being gay or lesbian

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Identity Tolerance

 In this stage the person begins to admit to

him or herself that he or she is probably
gay or lesbian.


 This helps the person decrease identity

confusion and allows him or her to
pursue more of his or her own
emotional, social, and sexual needs.

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 Adolescence

Identity Tolerance

 The person seeks out contacts and friends

in the gay or lesbian community and has
a chance to see positive role models. If
the contacts are positive, he or she will
probably become more accepting of a
gay or lesbian sexual identity.


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Identity Acceptance

 In this stage the individual increases

contact with other gay and lesbian
people and accepts a gay or lesbian
identity.
 Incongruity and alienation often continue
because of the lack of acceptance by the
heterosexual community.

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Identity Acceptance

 The person may be able to fit in with both

the gay or lesbian and straight world.
For some individuals this strategy works
and they successfully live their lives at
this stage.


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 Adolescence

Identity Pride

 People at this stage reject strategies to hide

their sexual orientation and often reject
heterosexual values and institutions.
 Personal reactions by heterosexual friends
and others in this stage can be both
positive and negative.
 If reactions are generally negative, then the
person tends to stay in this stage.

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Identity Synthesis

 In this stage the “us” and “them” mentality

gives way to a more differentiated view.
 Feelings of pride continue, but the person
comes to recognize that the dichotomy
between the gay and straight world is
not as clear cut as he or she previously
perceived.

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 Adolescence

Identity Synthesis

 Personal and public views of self are

synthesized and a person’s sexual
identity becomes less important as
sexual identity is integrated into all
other aspects of self.


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 Adolescence

Religious Identity
Development
 Stage 1: Pre-encounter -In this stage the
person has virtually no awareness of
their own religious identity


 Stage 2: Encounter -In this stage a person

probably has some personal encounter
with religious prejudice as well as some
sort of trigger that indicates the
beginning of separation from the
majority religion.

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 Adolescence

Religious Identity
Development
 Stage 3: Immersion/Emersion -In this stage
a person has a desire to surround
themselves with some or all forms of
religious culture. The subject is
energized by new information and newly
developing beliefs in their hearts.

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Religious Identity
Development
 Stage 4: Internalization -In this stage the
subject turns his or her emotions and
dedication inward. The subject will ask
themselves many questions such as,
"What does it mean for me to be
a_________?"

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 Adolescence

Religious Identity
Development
 Stage 5: Internalization/Commitment –
 The subject finds ways to interpret his
or her own spirituality and personality in
the context of their entire being.
 The focus is less on the inward person
and more on the outward whole of
humanity. This stage is somewhat of a
thoughtful religious maturity.

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STIGMATIZATION/
MARGINALIZATION

 Poor children are at increased risk of

receiving disparaging self-relevant
information from the social
environment, with poverty being viewed
by many as the product of individual
shortcomings and moral deficiencies
rather than societal factors

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LIMITATIONS IN
OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURE

 The nature of the opportunities available to

individuals is another factor that must
be taken into account when examining
potential effects of poverty on
development. The notion of a level
playing field may be largely mythical,
unsubstantiated by the reality of the
relationship between socioeconomic
background and opportunity structure.

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STRESS

 Poverty involves exposure to multiple

stressors that can have an undesirable
influence on development
 Economic deprivation entails stressful
life events and chronic strains
 Compared to their non-poor
counterparts, poor children encounter
more family turmoil, violence,
instability/unpredictability in
routines of daily living

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All the world is a
stage,
And all the men and
women merely
players.
They have their
exits and
entrances;
Each person in time
plays many parts.
– William Shakespeare
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 Adolescence

References
 Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1979

 Atkinson & Sue, 19 93

 Bronfenbr enner, 1 979, 1993

 Cross, 1987, 1995

 Helms, 1990, 1995

 Kilson, 2001

 Phillips,200 7

 Phinney, 199 0

 Poston, 1990

 Renn, 2000

 Root,1996

 Wallace, 200 1

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