BASIC ELECTRONICS

MODULE 3

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Prepared by

H V Balachandra Achar
Senior Lecturer,
Dept. of E&C Engg.,
M I T, Manipal

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, INDIA

Syllabus

Introduction to Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT Operation
BJT Configurations
Tutorials
BJT Biasing
Tutorials
BJT Amplifier
Tutorials

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Reference Books
1. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by
Boylestad & Nashelsky,
2. Integrated Electronics by Millman & Halkias,

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Introduction
Solid state transistor was invented by a team of scientists at
Bell laboratories during 1947-48
It brought an end to vacuum tube era
Advantages of solid state transistor over vacuum devices:
Smaller size, light weight
No heating elements required
Lower power consumption and operating voltages
Low price

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Introduction

Figure showing relative sizes of

transistor, IC and LED

Figure showing different transistor packages

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Introduction
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a sandwich consisting of
three layers of two different types of semiconductor
Two kinds of BJT sandwiches are: NPN and PNP

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Introduction
The three layers of BJT are called Emitter, Base and Collector
Base is very thin compared to the other two layers
Base is lightly doped. Emitter is heavily doped. Collector is
moderately doped
NPN Emitter and Collector are made of N-type
semiconductors; Base is P-type
PNP Emitter and Collector are P-type, Base is N-type
Both types (NPN and PNP) are extensively used, either
separately or in the same circuit

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Introduction
Transistor symbols:

Note: Arrow direction from P to N (like diode)

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Introduction
BJT has two junctions Emitter-Base (EB) Junction and
Collector-Base (CB) Junction
Analogous to two diodes connected back-to-back:
EB diode and CB diode
The device is called bipolar junction transistor because
current is due to motion of two types of charge carriers free
electrons & holes

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Transistor Operation
Operation of NPN transistor is discussed here; operation of
PNP is similar with roles of free electrons and holes
interchanged
For normal operation (amplifier application)
EB junction should be forward biased
CB junction should be reverse biased
Depletion width at EB junction is narrow (forward biased)
Depletion width at CB junction is wide (reverse biased)

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Transistor Operation

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Transistor Operation

Un-biased transistor showing barriers at the junctions

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Transistor Operation

C-B junction is reverse biased increased barrier height

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Transistor Operation

E-B junction is forward biased aids charge flow

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Transistor Operation

Electron-hole combination leads to small base current

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Transistor Operation
When EB junction is forward biased, free electrons from
emitter region drift towards base region
Some free electrons combine with holes in the base to form
small base current
Inside the base region (p-type), free electrons are minority
carriers. So most of the free electrons are swept away into the
collector region due to reverse biased CB junction

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Transistor Operation

Three currents can be identified in BJT

Emitter current

1.

2.

This is due to flow of free electrons from emitter to base

Results in current from base to emitter

Base current

3.

This is due to recombination of free electrons and holes in the base

region
Small in magnitude (usually in micro amperes)

Collector current

Has two current components:

One is due to injected free electrons flowing from base to collector
Another is due to thermally generated minority carriers

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Transistor Operation
C

IC

IB

IB

IC

IE
E

IE
E

NPN

PNP

Note the current directions in NPN and PNP transistors

For both varieties:
---(1)

I E IC I B

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Transistor Operation
As noted earlier, collector current has two components:
One due to injected charge carriers from emitter
Another due to thermally generated minority carriers
Both results in current in the same direction. Hence

I C dc I E I CBO

--- (2)

dc is the fraction of charge carriers emitted from emitter, that

enter into the collector region
ICBO is the reverse saturation current in CB diode
I I
--- (3)
dc C CBO
IE
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Transistor Operation
As approximation, we can neglect ICBO compared to IE and IC
Hence approximate equations are: I I
C

dc

dc E

IC
IE

Like the reverse saturation current of ordinary diode, ICBO also

doubles for every 10o rise in temperature.
So ICBO cannot be neglected at higher temperatures
The parameter dc is called common-base dc current gain
Value of dc is around 0.99
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Transistor Operation
We have I C dc I E I CBO
Substituting for IE, we get I C dc I C I B I CBO

(1 dc ) I C dc I B I CBO

dc
I CBO
IC
IB
(1 dc )
(1 dc )
I C dc I B I CEO --- (4)
Where

dc
dc
(1 dc )

and

I CEO

I CBO

dc 1 I CBO
(1 dc )

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Transistor Operation
Equations (2) and (4) are two alternate forms of BJT current
equation
Since value of dc is around 0.99, ICEO >> ICBO
However, ICEO is still very small compared to IC
IC
Hence approximation of (4) gives: I C dc I B or dc

IB

Parameter dc is called common emitter dc current gain

Values of dc and dc vary from transistor to transistor. Both dc
and dc are sensitive to temperature changes

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Problems
1.

2.

3.

A BJT has alpha (dc) 0.998 and collector-to-base reverse sat

current 1A. If emitter current is 5mA, calculate the
collector and base currents.
(Ans: 4.99 mA, 10 A)
An npn transistor has collector current 4mA and base current
10 A. Calculate the alpha and beta values of the transistor,
neglecting the reverse sat current ICBO
(Ans: 0.9975, 400)
In a transistor, 99% of the carriers injected into the base
cross over to the collector region. If collector current is
4mA and collector leakage current is 6 A, Calculate emitter
and base currents
(Ans: 4.034 mA, 34 A)

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Transistor Configurations
BJT has three terminals
For two-port applications, one of the BJT terminals needs to
be made common between input and output
Input

2-port
device

Output

Accordingly three configurations exist:

Common Base (CB) configuration
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
Common Collector (CC) configuration
(The last one is not discussed in this course)
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Transistor Configurations
Common Base configuration

(Resistors are not shown here

for simplicity)

Base is common between input and output

Input voltage: VEB
Input current: IE
Output voltage: VCB
Output current: IC
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Transistor Configurations
CB Input characteristics
A plot of IE versus VEB
for various values of VCB
It is similar to forward
biased diode
characteristics
As VCB is increased, IE
increases only slightly
Note that second letter in
the suffix is B (for base)
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Transistor Configurations
Input resistance ri

VEB
ri
with VCB const
I E
Voltage amplification factor AV

VCB
AV
with I E const
VEB
Both can be determined from the CB input characteristics
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Transistor Configurations

VEB1 VEB 2
ri
I E1 I E 2

VCB1 VCB 2
AV
VEB1 VEB 2

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Transistor Configurations
CB Output characteristics
A plot of IC versus VCB for various values of IE
Three regions are identified: Active, Cutoff, Saturation
Active region:
E-B junction forward biased
C-B junction reverse biased
IC is positive, VCB is positive
IC increases with IE
For given IE, IC is almost constant; increases only
slightly with increase in VCB. This is due to base-width
modulation (Early effect)
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Transistor Configurations
CB Output characteristics

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Transistor Configurations
Base Width modulation
As the reverse bias voltage VCB is increased, the depletion
region width at the C-B junction increases. Part of this
depletion region lies in the base layer. So, effective base
width decreases. Hence number of electron-hole
combination at the base decreases. So base current reduces
and collector current increases.
Note that IE = IC + IB

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Transistor Configurations
When IE = 0, IC = ICBO
ICBO is collector to base current with emitter open
Below this line we have cut-off region
Here both junctions are reverse biased
Region to the left of y-axis (VCB negative) is saturation region
Here both junctions are forward biased
IC decreases exponentially, and eventually changes
direction

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Transistor Configurations
Output resistance ro
rO

VCB
with I E const
I C

Current amplification factor AI or ac

ac

I C
with VCB const
I E

Both can be measured from output characteristics

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Transistor Configurations
Common Emitter configuration

(Resistors are omitted for simplicity)

Emitter is common between input and output

Input voltage: VBE Input current: IB
Output voltage: VCE
Output current: IC
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Transistor Configurations
CE input characteristics
Plot of IB versus VBE for
various values of VCE
Similar to diode
characteristics
As VCE is increased, IB
decreases only slightly
This is due to base-width
modulation
Note that second suffix is E
(for emitter)
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Transistor Configurations
CE output characteristics
A plot of IC versus VCE for various values of IB
Three regions identified: Active, Cut-off, Saturation
Active region:
Linear region in the output characteristics
E-B junction forward biased
C-B junction reverse biased
IC increases with IB
For given IB, IC increases slightly with increase in VCE;
this is due to base-width modulation (Early effect)
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Transistor Configurations
CE output characteristics

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Transistor Configurations
Note that VCE = VCB + VBE
So if VCE is increased, effectively VCB also increases
For saturation to take place, C-B junction should be forward
biased.
This happens when VCE is approximately 0.3 V (or less) for Si
Note that when VCE= 0.3V, and VBE= 0.6 V, VCB= 0.3V (a
forward bias of 0.3 V)
So region to the left of the vertical line VCE=VCE(sat)=0.3V (for
silicon) is considered as saturation region
Region below IB=0 line (or IC=ICEO) is cut-off region
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Transistor Configurations
ICEO is much larger than ICBO because of the relation:
I CEO

I CBO
1 dc

Note that value of dc is around 0.99

The values of dc & ac, and dc & ac are almost the same.
Hence the subscripts can be omitted for simplicity

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Transistor Configurations
Input resistance ri
VBE
ri
with VCE const
I B

Voltage gain AV
AV

VCE
with I B const
VBE

Output resistance ro

VCE
ro
with I B const
I C
Current gain AI or ac
ac

I C
with VCE const
I B

All these parameters can be determined from CE characteristics

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Transistor Configurations
Experimental
setup for
determining CE
characteristics:

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Tutorials
1.

A Ge transistor with = 100 has collector-to-base leakage

current of 5 A. If the transistor is connected in commonemitter operation, find the collector current for base current
(a) 0 (b) 40 A.
Sol: Given that ICBO = 5A, and = 100
We know that I C dc I B I CEO
When IB = 0,

IC = ICEO = (+1)ICBO = 505 A

When IB = 40 A,

IC = IB + ICEO
= (100 40 106) + (505 106)
= 4.505 mA

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Tutorials
2. A Ge Transistor has collector current of 51 mA when the base
current is 0.4 mA. If = 125, then what is its collector cutoff
current ICEO?
(Ans: 1 mA)
3. In a transistor circuit, when the base current is increased from
0.32 mA to 0.48 mA, the emitter current increases from 15 mA
to 20 mA. Find ac and ac values.
(Ans: 0.968, 30.25)
4. A transistor with = 0.98 and ICBO = 5 A has IB = 100 A.
Find IC and IE.
(Ans: 5.15 mA, 5.25 mA)

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Transistor Biasing
What is meant by biasing the transistor?
Applying external dc voltages to ensure that transistor
operates in the desired region
Which is the desired region?
For amplifier application, transistor should operate in
active region
For switch application, it should operate in cut-off and sat.
What is meant by quiescent point (Q-point)?
The point we get by plotting the dc values of IC , IB and VCE
(when ac input is zero) on the transistor characteristics
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Transistor Biasing
Transistor characteristics
showing Q-point
Q-point is in the middle
of active region.
This is called Class-A
operation. (Other classes
are discussed later)

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Transistor Biasing
Types of biasing:
Fixed bias and Self bias
Fixed bias:
The value of IB is fixed by choosing
proper value for RB
Equations to consider are:

VCC V BE
IB
RB

VCE VCC I C RC
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Transistor Biasing
Pros and Cons of Fixed bias:
Pros:
1) Simple circuit
2) Uses very few resistors
Cons:

Q-point is unstable
1) If temperature increases, then increases, and
hence ICQ and VCEQ vary (effectively Q-point shifts)
2) If the transistor is replaced with another
transistor having different value, then also Q-point shifts

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Transistor Biasing
Load Line
We have: VCE VCC I C RC
This is an equation of straight line with points VCC/RC and VCC
lying on y-axis and x-axis respectively
This line is called Load line because it depends on resistor
RC considered as Load and VCC
Intersection of load line and transistor characteristic curve is
the Q-point or operating point
This point is the common solution for characteristics and load
line equation
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Transistor Biasing
Variation in load line with
circuit parameters VCC, RC
and RB

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Transistor Biasing
Voltage divider bias or Self bias
Resistor RE connected between
emitter and ground
Voltage-divider resistors R1 & R2
replace RB
Circuit can be analyzed in two
methods:
Exact method (using Thevenins
theorem)
Approximation method
(neglecting base current)
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Transistor Biasing
Exact method:
Input side of self-bias
(Fig. a) transformed into
Thevenins equivalent
circuit (Fig. b) where,
RTH is the resistance
looking into the
terminals A & B (Fig. c)
and VTH is given by:
VTH

VCC R2
R1 R2

RTH R1 || R2

R1 R2
R1 R2

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Transistor Biasing
Self-bias circuit redrawn with input side
replaced by Thevenins equivalent :
Equations to consider:
VTH V BE
IB
RTH ( 1) RE

Since >> 1 and (+1)RE >> RTH

VTH V BE
IB
RE

VTH VBE
IC I B
RE

Since IC is almost independent of ,

Q-point is stable

VCE VCC I C RC I E RE

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Transistor Biasing
Approximate analysis:
Carried out only if RE 10R2
IB is negligible compared to I1 and I2
So,
VB

VCC R2
R1 R2

IE

VB VBE
RE

I C I E

VCE VCC I C RC I E R E
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Tutorials
1. For a fixed bias circuit using Si transistor, RB = 500 k, RC = 2 k, VCC = 15
V, ICBO = 20 A and = 70. Find the collector current ICQ and VCEQ at Qpoint. Take VBE as 0.7 V.
(Ans: 3.422mA, 8.156V)
2. A Si transistor is biased for a constant base current. If = 80, VCEQ = 8 V, RC
= 3 k and VCC = 15 V, find ICQ and the value of RB required.
(Ans: 2.33 mA, 493 K)
3. Repeat problem 2 if the transistor is a germanium device. (V BE=0.3V)
(Ans: 2.33 mA, 507 K)
4. For a fixed bias circuit, VCC = 12 V and RC = 4 k. The Ge transistor used is
characterized by = 50, ICEO = 0 and VCE sat = 0.2 V. Find the value of RB
that just results in saturation.
(Ans: 198.3K)

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Tutorials
5.

For a self bias circuit using silicon transistor, R E = 300 , RC = 500 ,

VCC = 15 V, = 100 and . If 10R2= RE, then determine the value of R1
to get VCEQ = VCC / 2.
(Ans: 9.85K)

6.

For a self bias circuit, the transistor is a Si device, R E = 200 , R1 =

10R2 = 10 k, RC = 2 k, = 100 and VCC = 15 V. Determine the
values of ICQ and VCEQ.

7.

Suppose if the transistor used in problem 6 failed, and was replaced with
a new transistor with = 75. Is the new transistor still biased for active
region operation?

8.

A self bias circuit uses Si transistor, RC = 330 , RE = 100 and VCC =

12 V. Estimate the values of R1 and R2 required to provide a base
current of 0.3 mA, so as to locate the operating point at I CQ = 18 mA and
VCEQ = 4.25 V.

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Transistor Amplifier
Amplifier
Device which gives larger swing in output voltage
proportional to the input voltage swing
BJT basically amplifies current: Collector current equals
beta times Base current
With proper circuit designs, we can get voltage
amplification and power (both voltage and current)
amplification
For faithful amplification (no distortion), BJT should
operate in Active region throughout the input cycle (Class
A)
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Transistor Amplifier
Without any bias,
transistor is in cut-off
(IC=0, VCE=0)
Biasing circuit fixes the
operating point in the
middle of active region
required for faithful
amplification
Figure shows commonemitter amplifier circuit
employing fixed bias
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Transistor Amplifier
With reference to the fig in previous slide, as input voltage vin
varies, iin varies, thus base current iB varies
This variation in base current is amplified beta times to get
variation in collector current iC
Output voltage vout is VCC iC RC
Note that if vin increases, there is proportional decrease in vout,
but of greater magnitude
Similarly if vin decreases, vout increases proportionally
Thus output voltage of CE amplifier is 180o out of phase with
input voltage
(Note that small letters are used to represent ac quantities)
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Transistor Amplifier
Voltage gain or voltage
amplification factor is vout /vin
which is dependent on , RC
and other physical parameters
of the transistor
Figure shows input and output
waveforms for the amplifier
circuit shown previously
Note the dc shift in the output
voltage waveform. i.e., when
vin = 0, vout = VCEQ
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Transistor Amplifier
This
animation
shows the
working of
Common
Emitter
transistor
circuit

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Transistor Amplifier
Gain of the amplifier is usually expressed in decibels
(AV)dB = 20 log10 | AV |
Usually a gain of 100 (i.e., 40 dB) can be obtained using single
transistor. For higher gain requirement, two or more amplifier
stages are to be cascaded
Overall gain is product of individual gains; But when
expressed in dB, overall gain is sum of individual gains (in dB)

AV AV 1 . AV 2 ....... AVN
( AV ) dB ( AV 1 ) dB ( AV 2 ) dB ....... ( AVN ) dB
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Transistor Amplifier
RC coupling
Fig shows CE amplifier
employing self bias
Additional components
are CC and CE
CC is called coupling
capacitor used to
prevent dc component
from entering or leaving
amplifier stage
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Transistor Amplifier
CE is called emitter bypass capacitor used to bypass the
ac emitter current preventing it from flowing through RE
If ac emitter current is allowed to pass through RE, then vBE
reduces and hence output voltage reduces

Frequency response of amplifier

Its important to know the behavior of amplifier at different
frequencies
Gain is NOT constant at all frequencies depends on
various factors
Frequency response is a plot of gain versus frequency
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Transistor Amplifier
Figure shows frequency
response plot
At lower and higher
frequencies, gain is less
Gain attains const value
at mid frequencies
Bandwidth of amplifier is
range of frequencies over
which gain is not less
than 3 dB of maximum
gain

20 log | 0.707 AVO | = 20 log | AVO | 3

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Transistor Amplifier
Analysis of frequency response curve
At very low frequencies, reactance of coupling capacitors
is high, hence there is loss of signal voltage across
capacitors, resulting in reduced gain
Also at low frequencies, emitter bypass capacitor does not
fully bypass the ac emitter current, hence ac voltage drop
develops across RE, resulting in reduced gain
At very high frequencies, shunt capacitances due to wiring
and inter-layer junction capacitances will be prominent,
hence resulting in signal loss
At mid frequencies, gain is maximum and constant
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Transistor Amplifier
Classification of amplifiers:
Based on mode of operation:
Class A: collector current flows throughout the complete input cycle
(360o); Q-point is in the centre of active region (no distortion)
Class B: collector current flows during (positive or negative) half
cycle of input; Q-point is at just cut-off or just saturation
Class AB: collector current flows for more than half cycle, but less
than full cycle of input waveform; Q-point is near cut-off or near
saturation
Class C: collector current flows for less than half cycle of input
waveform; Q-point is in deep cutoff or deep saturation
(For classes B, AB and C, output is distorted or clipped)
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Tutorials
1.

2.

3.

A three-stage amplifier circuit has first stage gain of 45 dB,

second stage gain of 50 dB and third stage gain of 5 dB.
What is the overall gain? If input to the first stage is 0.1mV,
what is the output of final stage?
An amplifier has maximum gain of 200 and bandwidth of
500 kHz. If lower cutoff freq is 50 Hz, what is the upper
cutoff freq and gain at this frequency?
Design a self bias circuit, given the following parameters:
IC=1mA, VCC=12V, VCE=VCC/2, VB=VCC/10, beta=100,
VBE=0.6V, R2=2K

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End of Module 3

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