1.

1 Design
What is Machine Design?

Creation of new and better machines AND

Improving

existing ones

So that it is economical in the cost of production and operation.

Machine Design
How a design is born

Market
survey
marketability

Ease of
handling

Requirement
Availability of
FUNDS

Creation
Model

(Rough idea)

Aesthetic

Available
material

Safety
Economical
Recyclability

Manufacturing
resources
Analysis

Force/stress

Material/s
used

Sizes

What is the basic knowledge required for Machine

Design?
Mathematics
Mathematics
Engineering
EngineeringMechanics
Mechanics
Strength
Strengthof
ofMaterials
Materials

Mechanics of Machines
Mechanics of Materials
Fluid Mechanics & Thermodynamics

Workshop
WorkshopProcesses
Processes
Engineering
EngineeringDrawing
Drawing
Computing
Finite Element Analysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics etc

Important considerations in Machine

Design
1. Type of

LOAD

and

Dead loads

STRESSes

caused by the load

Stress and strain

(Tensile, compressive, shear)

Live loads
Steady loads
Variable loads

Shock loads (suddenly)

Impact loads (applied
with some velocity)

Thermal stresses

Torsional stresses
Bending stress

Important considerations in Machine

Design..
2. KINEMATICS of the machine (Motion of the parts)
Find the simplest arrangement that would give the most
efficient motion that is required.

3. Selection of MATERIALs
Knowledge of the properties of the materials and their
behaviour under working conditions is required.
Strength, hardness, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance
to heat and corrosion, electrical conductivity, machinability,
etc.

Important considerations in Machine

Design..
3. Selection of MATERIALs
Metal
Ferrous

Non-metal

Non-ferrous

Physical properties: Density, Melting point, Elec/thermal properties

Mechanical properties:
STRENGTH
resist externally applied loads without breaking
or yielding
STIFFNESS resist deformation under stress
ELASTICITY regain original shape once the force is removed
PLASTICITY property which retains deformation (required for
forging etc)
DUCTILITY
ability to be drawn into a wire by a tensile force
BRITTLENESS sudden breaking with minimum distortion
TOUGHNESS resist fracture due to high impact load
CREEP
deformation under stress and high temperature
FATIGUE
ability to withstand cyclic stresses
HARDNESS resistance to wear, scratching, deformation,
machinability etc

Important considerations in Machine

Design..
4. Form and size of the parts
Use I-beam or Angle-iron?
The size will be determined by the forces/torques
applied (stresses on the object) and the material used
such that failure (fracture or deformation) would not
occur

General procedure in Machine Design..

Need or aim
Synthesis

Recognize and specify the problem

Select the mechanism that would give the desired
motion and form the basic model with a sketch etc

Analysis of the FORCES

Material selection

Design of elements

Modification

Detailed drawing

Determine the stresses and thereby the

sizes of components s.t. failure or
deformation does not occur

Modify sizes to ease construction & reduce overall co

Production

1-5 Designing action steps

Understand the problem clearly
Identify what are known
Identify what are unknown and formulate solution strategy
State all assumptions and decisions
Analyze the problem with the solution strategy
Evaluate your solution (Is it sound good for real life?)
Present your solution

As seen in design phase, the design process are interactive and

iterative. Therefore, it may be necessary to repeat some or all of the
above steps more than once if less than satisfactory results are
obtained.

1-7 Economics
Use standard sizes as possible (stock sizes).
Use large tolerances as possible.
Think of mass products (breakeven point).
Think hard of environmental effect.

1-8 Safety and product Liability

Manufacturer and designer always take responsibility no
matter how long is the life of a product.
Be careful of excessive promises
Be sure to provide adequate warning and instruction
Designer should always review, test, and control the quality of a
product.

1-9 Stress and strength

Strength is a build-in or inherent property of a material used to
manufacture a product.
Depending on the choice, the treatment, and the
processing of the material
Obtaining by testing (tension test, torsion test, etc.)
Stress is a state property at a specific point within a body
Depending on the external load applied on the product,
geometry, temperature, etc.
Obtaining by analyzing (Mechanics of Materials, Theory of
Elasticity, etc.)

1-9 Stress and strength

In this book we shall use the capital letter S to denote strength,
with appropriate subscripts to denote the type of strength. Thus,
Ss : shear strength,
Sy : yield strength, and
Su : ultimate strength.
(sigma): normal stress
(tau): shear stress
Again,various subscripts will indicate some special characteristic.
For example,
1 : a principal stress,
y : a stress component in the y direction
r : a stress component in the radial direction..

1-10 Uncertainty concerning stress and strength

Composition of material and effect of variation on properties
(Isotropic, anisotropic, orthotropic materials)
Variation on properties for different places or stocks
Effect of assemblies
Intensity and distribution of loading
Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality (do not
forget your assumptions when making analysis)
Stress concentration
Influence of time (time edge effect, creep)
Effect of corrosion and wear
Much more
Designers themselves

1-11 Design factor and factor of

safety
Engineers employ a safety factor to ensure against foregoing
unknown uncertainties involving strength and loading.
This factor is used to provide assurance that the load applied to a
member dose not exceed the largest load it can carry
The factor of safety can be defined as:

failure load
nd
allowable load
Factor of safety has the same definition as the design factor, but
it generally differs numerically.

Ex
1.1

Design factor and factor of safety

If it is defined in terms of strength design:

material strength
nd
allowable stress
In this case, the material strength represents either static or
dynamic properties.
If loading is static, the material strength is either the yield
strength or the ultimate strength.
For fatigue loading, the material strength is based on the
endurance limit (will take it later on).
Allowable stress is also called Design Stress.
Ex
1.1

EXAMPLE 1-2:
A rod with a cross sectional area of A loaded in tension with an axial
force of P=9 kN undergoes a stress of = P/A. Using a material
strength of 168 N/mm2 and a design factor of 3, determine the
minimum diameter of a solid circular rod . Using Table A-15, select a
preferred fractional diameter and determine the rods factor of safety.

Solution:

Since A d 2 / 4 and S / nd , then

S 168 P
9000

nd
3
A .d 2 / 4

or
4 Pnd
d

.
S

1/ 2

4.9000.3

.
168

1/ 2

14.3mm

From Table A-15 the next higher preferred size is 16 mm. Thus, according
to the same equation developed earlier, the factor of safety n is

.S .d 2 .168.16 2
n

3.75
4P
4 9000
Thus rounding the diameter has increased the actual design factor

1-12 Reliability
The statistical measure of the probability that a mechanical
element will not fail in use.
o It is expressed by a number having the range: 0 < R < 1
o If for example R=0.9 means that there is a 90 percent
chance that the part will perform its proper function without
failure.
o Suppose we have 6 parts fail out of
manufactured, then R=1-6/1000=0.994.

1000 parts

oIn the reliability method of design, the designers task is to

make a judicious selection of materials, processes, and
geometry so as to achieve a reliability goal.

1-13 Dimensions and Tolerances

Nominal size The size we use in speaking of an element.

Is not required to match the actual dimension

Limits The stated maximum and minimum dimensions

Tolerance The difference between the two limits

Bilateral tolerance The variation in both directions from the basic

dimension, e.g. 1.005 0.002 in.

Unilateral tolerance The basic dimension is taken as one of the

limits, and variation is permitted in only one direction, e.g.

Dimensions and Tolerances

Clearance Refers to the difference in sizes of two mating
cylindrical parts such as a bolt and a hole.
Assumes the internal member is smaller than the external
member
Diametral clearance difference in the two diameters
Radial clearance difference in the two radii
Interference The opposite of clearance, when the internal
member is larger than the external member
Allowance The minimum stated clearance or the maximum
stated interference or mating parts

1-14* Units
Newtons second law F=ma
F=MLT-2
M=mass, L= Length, T=Time (Base units)
SI System of Units
F=(kg)(m)/s2=N
And for stress
Stress= =Force/Area=MLT-2/L2=N/m2=Pa