Chapter 5

Histology

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Introduction
There are 50 trillion cells of 200 different cell types
Four broad categories of tissues
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Muscular tissue
Organstructure with discrete boundaries that is
composed of two or more tissue types
Histology (microscopic anatomy)the study of
tissues and how they are arranged into organs
5-2

The Study of Tissues

Expected Learning Outcomes
Name the four primary classes into which all adult
tissues are classified.
Name the three embryonic germ layers and some
adult tissues derived from each.
Visualize the three-dimensional shape of a structure
from a two-dimensional tissue section.

5-3

The Primary Tissue Classes

Tissuea group of similar cells and cell products
that arise from the same region of the embryo
and work together to perform a specific structural
or physiological role in an organ
Four primary tissues differ from one another, as
follows:
Types and functions of their cells
Characteristics of the matrix (extracellular material)
Relative amount of space occupied by cells versus
matrix
5-4

The Primary Tissue Classes

Matrix (extracellular material) is composed of:
Fibrous proteins
Clear gel called ground substance, tissue fluid,
extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid, or tissue
gel

5-5

Embryonic Tissues
Human development begins as single cell, the
fertilized egg
Divides to produce scores of identical, smaller cells
First tissues appear when these cells start to organize
themselves into layers; First two, and then three strata

5-6

Embryonic Tissues
Three primary germ layers
Ectoderm (outer)
Gives rise to epidermis and nervous system

Endoderm (inner)
Gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and respiratory
tracts, digestive glands, among other things

Mesoderm (middle) becomes gelatinous tissue called

mesenchyme
Wispy collagen fibers and fibroblasts in gel matrix
Gives rise to muscle, bone, blood

5-7

Interpreting Tissue Sections

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Sectioning a cell
with a centrally
located nucleus
Some slices miss
the cell nucleus
In some, the
nucleus is smaller

(a)

Figure 5.1a

5-8

Interpreting Tissue Sections

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cross section of
blood vessel, gut, or
other tubular organ
Longitudinal
section of a sweat
glandnotice what a
single slice could
look like

Figure 5.1b,c
(b)

(c)

5-9

Longitudinal, Cross, Oblique Sections

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Longitudinal sections

Longitudinal section (l.s.)

Tissue cut along long direction
of organ

Cross sections

Cross section (c.s. or x.s.)

or transverse section (t.s.)
Tissue cut perpendicular to
length of organ

Oblique sections

Oblique section
Tissue cut at angle between
cross and longitudinal sections

Figure 5.2

5-10

Epithelial Tissue
Expected Learning Outcomes
Describe the properties that distinguish
epithelium from other tissue classes.
List and classify eight types of epithelium,
distinguish them from each other, and state
where each type can be found in the body.
Explain how the structural differences between
epithelia relate to their functional differences.
Visually recognize each epithelial type from
specimens or photographs.
5-11

Epithelial Tissue
Consists of a flat sheet of closely adhering cells
One or more cells thick
Upper surface usually exposed to the
environment or an internal space in the body
Covers body surface and lines body cavities
Forms the external and internal linings of many
organs

5-12

Characteristics of Epithelial
tissue
High cellularity - lots of densely packed cells with
Specialized intercellular contacts - such as tight junctions,
desmosomes and gap junctions.
Basement membranes & other c.t. support - anchors to connective
tissue.
Polarity - it has an apical side and a basal side (a free edge and a
fixed edge).
Avascular - no blood supply. Receive oxygen and nutrients by
diffusion
Highly mitotic - cells readily regenerate.

Epithelial Tissue
Constitutes most glands
Extracellular material is so thin it is not visible
with a light microscope
Epithelia allow no room for blood vessels
Lie on a layer of loose connective tissue and
depend on its blood vessels for nourishment and
waste removal

5-14

Epithelial Tissue
Basement membranelayer between an
epithelium and the underlying connective tissue
Collagen
Laminin and fibronectin adhesive glycoproteins
Heparin sulfate: large proteincarbohydrate complex

Anchors the epithelium to the connective tissue

below it
Basal surfacesurface of an epithelial cell that
faces the basement membrane
Apical surfacesurface of an epithelial cell that
faces away from the basement membrane
5-15

Epithelial Tissue
Stratified epithelium

Simple epithelium
Contains one layer of cells
Named by shape of cells
All cells touch the basement
membrane

Contains more than one layer

Named by shape of apical cells
Some cells rest on top of others
and do not touch basement
membrane

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a)

Classes of
epithelium

Simple

(b)

Pseudostratified
columnar

Stratified

Cell
shapes

Squamous

Cuboidal

Figure 5.3

Columnar

5-16

Simple Epithelia
Four types of simple epithelia
Three named for their cell shapes
Simple squamous (thin, scaly cells)
Simple cuboidal (square or round cells)
Simple columnar (tall, narrow cells)

5-17

Simple Epithelia
Fourth type
Pseudostratified columnar

Not all cells reach the free surface

Shorter cells are covered over by taller ones
Looks stratified
Every cell reaches the basement membrane

Goblet cellswineglass-shaped mucus-secreting

cells in simple columnar and pseudostratified
epithelia

5-18

Simple Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Squamous epithelial cells

Nuclei of smooth muscle

Basement membrane

Figure 5.4a

(a)

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Simple squamous epithelium

Figure 5.4b,i

Single row of thin cells

Permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances
Secretes serous fluid
Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa

5-19

Simple Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Lumen of kidney tubule

(a)

Cuboidal epithelial cells

Basement membrane

(b)

Figure 5.5a

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Figure 5.5b,i

Single layer of square or round cells

Absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement
Liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles, and
kidney tubules
5-20

Simple Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Brush border
(microvilli)

(a)

Figure 5.6a

Connective
tissue

Basement
membrane

Goblet
Nuclei cell

Columnar
cells

(b)
a: Lester V. Bergman

Simple columnar epithelium

Figure 5.6b,i

Single row of tall, narrow cells

Oval nuclei in basal half of cell
Brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess
goblet cells
Absorption and secretion; secretion of mucus
Lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney, and uterine tubes

5-21

Pseudostratified Epithelium
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cilia

(a)

Figure 5.7a

Basement membrane

Basal cells Goblet cell

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Pseudostratified epithelium

Figure 5.7b,i

Looks multilayered; some not reaching free surface; all touch basement
membrane
Nuclei at several layers
With cilia and goblet cells
Secretes and propels mucus
5-22
Respiratory tract and portions of male urethra

Stratified Epithelia
Range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
Some cells resting directly on others
Only the deepest layer attaches to the basement
membrane

Three stratified epithelia are named for the

shapes of their surface cells
Stratified squamous
Stratified cuboidal
Stratified columnar (rare)

Fourth type
Transitional epithelium
5-23

Stratified Epithelia
Most widespread epithelium in the body
Deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
Their daughter cells push toward the surface and
become flatter as they migrate farther upward
Finally die and flake offexfoliation or
desquamation

Two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia

Keratinizedfound on skin surface, abrasion
resistant
Nonkeratinizedlacks surface layer of dead cells
5-24

Stratified Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dead squamous cells

Living epithelial cells

Dense irregular
connective tissue

Areolar tissue

(a)

Figure 5.8a

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Joe DeGrandis, photographer

Keratinized stratified squamous

Figure 5.8b,i

Multiple cell layers with cells becoming flat and scaly toward
surface
Epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized
Resists abrasion; retards water loss through skin; resists
penetration by pathogenic organisms

5-25

Stratified Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Living epithelial cells

(a)

Figure 5.9a

Connective tissue

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous

Figure 5.9b,i

Same as keratinized epithelium without the surface layer of dead cells

Tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, and vagina
Resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens
5-26

Stratified Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cuboidal cells

(a)

Epithelium

Connective tissue

(b)

Figure 5.10a

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Figure 5.10b,i

Two or more cell layers; surface cells square or round

Secretes sweat; sperm production and ovarian hormone production
Sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous tubules

5-27

Stratified Epithelia
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Basement
membrane

(a)

Figure 5.11a

Connective
tissue

Binucleate
epithelial cell

(b)
a: Johnny R. Howze

Figure 5.11b,i

Transitional epithelium
Multilayered epithelium surface cells that change from round to
flat when stretched
Allows for filling of urinary tract
Ureter and bladder

5-28

Connective Tissue
Expected Learning Outcomes
Describe the properties that most connective tissues
have in common.
Discuss the types of cells found in connective tissue.
Explain what the matrix of a connective tissue is and
describe its components.
Name and classify 10 types of connective tissue,
describe their cellular components and matrix, and
explain what distinguishes them from each other.
Visually recognize each connective tissue type from
specimens or photographs.
5-29

Connective Tissue: Overview

Connective tissuea type of tissue in which cells
usually occupy less space than the extracellular
material
Binds organs to each other, supports and protects
organs
Most cells of connective tissue are not in direct
contact with each other
Separated by extracellular material

Highly vascularrichly supplied with blood vessels

Most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically
variable of the primary tissues
5-30

Connective Tissue: Overview

Binding of organstendons and ligaments

Supportbones and cartilage
Physical protectioncranium, ribs, sternum
Immune protectionwhite blood cells attack foreign
invaders
Movementbones provide lever system
Storagefat, calcium, phosphorus
Heat productionmetabolism of brown fat in infants
Transportblood

5-31

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Cells
Fibroblasts produce fibers and ground substance
Macrophages phagocytize foreign material and activate
immune system when they sense foreign matter (antigen)
Arise from white blood cells called monocytes

Leukocytes, or white blood cells

Neutrophils wander about attacking bacteria
Lymphocytes react against bacteria, toxins, and other foreign
material

Plasma cells synthesize disease-fighting antibodies

Arise from lymphocytes

Mast cells are found alongside blood vessels

Secrete heparin to inhibit clotting
Secrete histamine to dilate blood vessels

Adipocytes store triglycerides (fat molecules)

5-32

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Fibers
Collagenous fibers

Most abundant of the bodys proteins25%

Tough, flexible, and resist stretching
Tendons, ligaments, and deep layer of the skin are mostly collagen
Less visible in matrix of cartilage and bone

Reticular fibers
Thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
Form framework of such organs as spleen and lymph nodes

Elastic fibers

Thinner than collagenous fibers

Branch and rejoin each other
Made of protein called elastin
Allows stretch and recoil
Yellow fibersfresh elastic fibers

5-33

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Ground substance
Usually a gelatinous to rubbery consistency resulting from
three classes of large molecules
Glycosaminoglycans (GAG)
Long polysaccharide composed of unusual disaccharides
called amino sugars and uronic acid
Play important role of regulating water and electrolyte
balance in the tissues

Chondroitin sulfatemost abundant GAG

In blood vessels and bone
Responsible for stiffness of cartilage

Hyaluronic acidviscous, slippery substance that

forms an effective lubricant in joints and constitutes
much of the vitreous body of the eyeball

5-34

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Cont.
Proteoglycan
Gigantic molecule shaped like a test-tube brush
Forms thick colloids that create strong structural bond
between cells and extracellular macromolecules; holds
tissues together

Adhesive glycoproteinsbind components of

tissues together

5-35

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Loose connective tissue

Much gel-like ground substance
between cells
Types

Tendons

Areolar
Reticular

Dense connective tissue

Fibers fill spaces between cells
Types vary in fiber orientation
Dense regular connective tissue
Dense irregular connective
tissue

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Rebecca Gray, photographer/Don Kincaid, dissections

Figure 5.13
5-36

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a lot
of seemingly empty space
Possess all six cell types
Fibers run in random directions
Mostly collagenous, but elastic and reticular also present

Found in tissue sections from almost every part of the body

Surrounds blood vessels and nerves

Nearly every epithelium rests on a layer of areolar tissue

Blood vessels provide nutrition to epithelium and waste removal
Ready supply of infection-fighting leukocytes that move about freely
in areolar tissue
5-37

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ground
substance

(a)

Figure 5.14a

Elastic
fibers

Collagenous
fibers

Fibroblasts

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Areolar tissue

Figure 5.14b,i

Loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a lot of

seemingly empty space
Underlies all epithelia, in serous membranes, between muscles,
passageways for nerves and blood vessels

5-38

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Leukocytes

Reticular
fibers

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a)

Figure 5.15a

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

Reticular tissue

Figure 5.15b,i

Mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts

Forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic organs
Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow
5-39

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Collagen fibers

(a)

Figure 5.16a

Ground substance

Fibroblast nuclei

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Dense regular connective tissue

Figure 5.16b,i

Densely packed, parallel collagen fibers

Compressed fibroblast nuclei
Elastic tissue/fibers, wavy sheets

Tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments hold bones

together

5-40

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Bundles of
Gland
collagen fibers ducts

(a)

Figure 5.17a

Fibroblast Ground
nuclei
substance

(b)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Dense irregular connective tissue

Figure 5.17b,i

Densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen fibers and few

visible cells
Withstands unpredictable stresses
Deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs
5-41

Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue (fat)tissue in which adipocytes are the
dominant cell type
Space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar tissue,
reticular tissue, and blood capillaries
Fat is the bodys primary energy reservoir
The quantity of stored triglyceride and the number of adipocytes
are quite stable in a person
Fat is recycled continuously to prevent stagnation
New triglycerides are constantly synthesized and stored
Old triglycerides are hydrolyzed and released into circulation
5-42

Adipose Tissue
Provides thermal insulation
Anchors and cushions organs such as eyeballs,
kidneys
Contributes to body contoursfemale breast and
hips
On average, women have more fat than men
Too little fat can reduce female fertility

Most adult fat is called white fat

Brown fatin fetuses, infants, childrena heatgenerating tissue
5-43

Adipose Tissue
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Blood
vessel

(a)

Figure 5.18a

Adipocyte
nucleus

Lipid in
adipocyte

(b)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.18b,i
Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against
cell membrane
Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
Subcutaneous fat and organ packing
Brown fat (hibernating animals) produces heat

5-44

Cartilage
Supportive connective tissue with flexible, rubbery
matrix
Gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx
Chondroblasts produce matrix and surround
themselves until they become trapped in little cavities
(lacunae)
Chondrocytescartilage cells in lacunae
Perichondriumsheath of dense irregular connective
tissue that surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage
(not articular cartilage)
Contains a reserve population of chondroblasts that
contribute to cartilage growth throughout life
5-45

Cartilage
No blood vessels
Diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes
Heals slowly

Matrix rich in chondroitin sulfate and contains

collagen fibers
Types of cartilage vary with fiber types
Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

5-46

Cartilage
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Matrix

(a)

Figure 5.19a

Cell
nest Perichondrium

Lacunae

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Hyaline cartilage

Figure 5.19b,i

Clear, glassy microscopic appearance because of unusual

fineness of the collagen fibers
Usually covered by perichondrium

Articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton

Eases joint movement, holds airway open, moves vocal cords 5-47
during speech

Cartilage
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Perichondrium

(a)

Figure 5.20a

Elastic
fibers

Lacunae

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Elastic cartilage

Figure 5.20b,i

Cartilage containing elastic fibers

Covered with perichondrium

Provides flexible, elastic support
External ear and epiglottis

5-48

Cartilage
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Collagen
fibers

(a)

Figure 5.21a

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Dr. Alvin Telser

Fibrocartilage

Figure 5.21b,i

Cartilage containing large, coarse bundles of collagen fibers

Never has perichondrium

Resists compression and absorbs shock
Pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs

5-49

Bone
The term bone has two meanings:
An organ of the body: femur, mandible; composed of multiple
tissue types
Bone tissue (osseous tissue) makes up most of the mass of
bone

Two forms of osseous tissue

Spongy bone: spongy in appearance
Delicate struts of bone: trabeculae
Covered by compact bone
Found in heads of long bones and in middle of flat bones such as the
sternum

Compact bone: denser, calcified tissue with no visible spaces

More complex arrangement
Cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in long
bones
5-50

Bone
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Concentric
Central
lamellae
Lacunae Canaliculi of osteon canal Osteon

(a)

Figure 5.22a

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.22b,i

Compact bone is arranged in cylinders that surround

central (haversian or osteonic) canals that run
longitudinally through shafts of long bones
Blood vessels and nerves travel through central canal
Bone matrix deposited in concentric lamella
Onionlike layers around each central canal
5-51

Bone
Osteoncentral canal and its surrounding lamellae
Osteocytesmature bone cells that occupy the
lacunae
Canaliculidelicate canals that radiate from each
lacuna to its neighbors, and allow osteocytes to
contact each other
Periosteumtough fibrous connective tissue
covering of the bone as a whole

5-52

Blood
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Platelets

Fluid connective tissue

Neutrophils

Lymphocyte

Erythrocytes

Monocyte

Transports cells and dissolved

matter from place to place
Plasmabloods liquid ground
substance
Formed elementscells and
cell fragments
Erythrocytesred blood
cells: transport O2 and CO2
Leukocyteswhite blood
cells: defense against
infection and other diseases
Plateletscell fragments
involved in clotting and other
mechanisms

(b)

Figure 5.23b,i

5-53

Nervous and Muscular Tissues

Excitable Tissues
Expected Learning Outcomes
Explain what distinguishes excitable tissues from
other tissues.
Name the cell types that compose nervous tissue.
Identify the major parts of a nerve cell.
Visually recognize nervous tissue from specimens or
photographs.
Name the three kinds of muscular tissue and describe
the differences between them.
Visually identify any type of muscular tissue from
specimens or photographs.
5-54

Nervous and Muscular Tissues

Excitable Tissues
Excitabilitya characteristic of all living cells
Developed to highest degree in nervous and muscular
tissues

Membrane potentialelectrical charge difference

(voltage) that occurs across the plasma membranes
is the basis for their excitation
Respond quickly to outside stimulus by means of changes
in membrane potential
Nerves: changes result in rapid transmission of signals to
other cells
Muscles: changes result in contraction, shortening of the
cell
5-55

Nervous Tissue
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nuclei of glial cells

Axon

Neurosoma

Dendrites

Nervous tissuespecialized
for communication by electrical
and chemical signals
Consists of neurons (nerve
cells)
Detect stimuli
Respond quickly
Transmit coded information
rapidly to other cells

Neuroglia (glial)
Protect and assist neurons
Housekeepers of nervous
system

(b)

Figure 5.24b,i

5-56

Nervous Tissue
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Neuron parts

Nuclei of glial cells

Axon

Neurosoma

Dendrites

Neurosoma (cell body)

Houses nucleus and other
organelles
Cells center of genetic
control and protein synthesis

Dendrites
Multiple short, branched
processes
Receive signals from other
cells
Transmit messages to
neurosoma

Axon (nerve fiber)

Sends outgoing signals to
other cells
Can be more than a meter
long

(b)

Figure 5.24b,i

5-57

Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissueelongated cells that are specialized
to contract in response to stimulation
Primary job is to exert physical force on other tissues
and organs
Creates movements involved in body and limb
movement, digestion, waste elimination, breathing,
speech, and blood circulation
Important source of body heat
Three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth

5-58

Muscular Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Long, threadlike cells called muscle fibers
Most attach to bone
Exceptions: in tongue, upper esophagus, facial muscles, some
sphincter muscles (ringlike or cufflike muscles that open and close
body passages)
Contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane
Striationsalternating dark and light bands
Voluntaryconscious control over skeletal muscles
Nuclei

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.

(a)

Striations

Muscle fiber

(b)

Figure 5.25a

a: Ed Reschke

Figure 5.25b,i

5-59

Muscular Tissue
Cardiac muscle
Limited to the heart

Myocytes or cardiocytes are shorter, branched, and notched at

ends
Contain one centrally located nucleus surrounded by lightstaining glycogen
Intercalated discs join cardiocytes end to end
Provide electrical and mechanical connection

Striated and involuntary (not under conscious control)

Intercalated discs

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a)

Striations

Glycogen

(b)

Figure 5.26a

Ed Reschke

Figure 5.26b,i

5-60

Muscular Tissue
Nuclei

Muscle cells

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a)

Figure 5.27a

(b)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Smooth muscle
Figure 5.27b,i
Lacks striations and is involuntary
Relatively short, fusiform cells (thick in middle, tapered at ends)
One centrally located nucleus
Visceral muscleforms layers of digestive, respiratory, and
urinary tract: propels contents through an organ, regulates
diameter of blood vessels
5-61

Cell Junctions, Glands,

and Membranes
Expected Learning Outcomes
Describe the junctions that hold cells and tissues
together.
Describe or define different types of glands.
Describe the typical anatomy of a gland.
Name and compare different modes of glandular
secretion.
Describe the way tissues are organized to form
the bodys membranes.
Name and describe the major types of
membranes in the body.
5-62

Cell Junctions
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Intercellular space
Plasma membrane
Cell-adhesion proteins

(a) Tight junction

Intercellular space
Cell-adhesion
proteins
Plaque
Intermediate
filaments of
cytoskeleton

(b) Desmosome

Proteins

Connexon
Pore
(c) Gap junction

Basement membrane

(d) Hemidesmosome

Figure 5.28,

Cell junctionsconnections between one cell and another

All cells (except blood and metastatic cancer cells) are anchored to
each other or their matrix by intercellular junctions
Resist stress and communicate with each other

5-63

Tight Junctions
Tight junctiona region in which adjacent cells are bound
together by fusion of the outer phospholipid layer of their
plasma membranes
In epithelia, forms a zone that completely encircles each cell
near its apical pole
Seals off intercellular space
Makes it impossible for substance to pass between cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intercellular space
Plasma membrane
Cell-adhesion proteins

(a) Tight junction

Intercellular space
Cell-adhesion
proteins
Plaque
Intermediate
filaments of
cytoskeleton
(b) Desmosome

Proteins

Figure 5.28

Connexon
Pore
(c) Gap junction

Basement membrane

(d) Hemidesmosome

5-64

Desmosomes
Desmosomespatch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)
Serves to keep cells from pulling apartresists mechanical stress
Hooklike J-shaped proteins arise from cytoskeleton
Approach cell surface
Penetrate into thick protein plaques linked to transmembrane proteins
Hemidesmosomesanchor the basal cells of epithelium to the
underlying basement membrane
Epithelium cannot easily peel away from underlying tissues
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intercellular space
Plasma membrane
Cell-adhesion proteins

(a) Tight junction

Intercellular space
Cell-adhesion
proteins
Plaque
Intermediate
filaments of
cytoskeleton
(b) Desmosome

Proteins

Figure 5.28

Connexon
Pore
(c) Gap junction

Basement membrane

(d) Hemidesmosome

5-65

Gap Junctions
Gap (communicating) junctionformed by a ringlike
connexon
Consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged like
segments of an orange
Surrounding water-filled pores
Ions, glucose, amino acids, and other solutes pass from one
cell to the next
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Intercellular space

Plasma membrane
Cell-adhesion proteins

(a) Tight junction

Intercellular space
Cell-adhesion
proteins
Plaque
Intermediate
filaments of
cytoskeleton
(b) Desmosome

Proteins

Figure 5.28

Connexon
Pore
(c) Gap junction

Basement membrane

(d) Hemidesmosome

5-66

Glands
Glandcell or organ that secretes substances
for use elsewhere in the body or releases them
for elimination from the body
Composed of epithelial tissue in a connective tissue
framework and capsule
May produce product synthesized by the gland
(digestive enzymes) or products removed from
tissues and modified by the gland (urine)

Secretionproduct useful to the body

Excretionwaste product
5-67

Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glandsmaintain their contact with the
body surface by way of a duct (epithelial tube that
conveys secretion to surface)
Sweat, mammary, and tear glands

Endocrine glandslose their contact with the

surface and have no ducts
Hormones: secretion of endocrine glands
Secrete (hormones) directly into blood
Thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands
5-68

Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

Some organs have both endocrine and exocrine
functions
Liver, gonads, pancreas

Unicellular glandsfound in epithelium that is

predominantly nonsecretory
Can be endocrine or exocrine
Mucus-secreting goblet or endocrine cells of stomach
and small intestine

5-69

Exocrine Gland Structure

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capsuleconnective
covering of most glands
Septa or trabeculae:
extensions of capsule that
divide the interior of the gland
into compartments (lobes)
Further divided into smaller
lobules

Lobules
Secretory
acini

Lobes

Duct
Parenchyma

Secretory
vesicles

Stroma:
Capsule
Septum
(a)

(b)

Duct

Acinus

Figure 5.30

5-70

Exocrine Gland Structure

Stromaconnective tissue framework of the
gland
Supports and organizes glandular tissue

Parenchymacells that perform the tasks of

synthesis and secretion
Typically cuboidal or simple columnar epithelium

5-71

Exocrine Gland Structure

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Simple coiled tubular

Compound acinar

Compound tubuloacinar

Example: Sweat gland

Example: Pancreas

Key
Duct
Secretory portion

Example: Mammary gland

Figure 5.31

Simpleunbranched duct
Compoundbranched duct
Shape of gland
Tubular: duct and secretory portion have uniform diameter
Acinar: secretory cells form dilated sac (acinus or alveolus)
Tubuloacinar: both tubular and acinar portions

5-72

Types of Secretions
Serous glands
Produce thin, watery secretions
Perspiration, milk, tears, digestive juices

Mucous glands
Produce glycoprotein, mucin, which absorbs water to
form a sticky secretion called mucus
Goblet cells: unicellular mucous glands

Mixed glands
Contain both cell types and produce a mixture of the two
types of secretions

Cytogenic glands
Release whole cells, sperm and egg cells

5-73

Modes of Secretion
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Merocrine glands (eccrine

glands) have vesicles that
release their secretion by
exocytosis
Tear glands, pancreas, gastric
glands, and others

Exocytosis
Nucleus
Secretory
vesicle

(a) Merocrine gland

Apocrine glandsprimarily
merocrine mode of secretion
Axillary sweat glands, mammary
glands

Figure 5.32a

5-74

Modes of Secretion
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Figure 5.32b

(b) Holocrine gland

Holocrine glandscells accumulate a product and then

the entire cell disintegrates
Secretion of a mixture of cell fragments and synthesized substance
Oil glands of scalp, glands of eyelids
5-75

Membranes
Membranes line body cavities and cover
their viscera
Cutaneous membrane (the skin)largest
membrane in the body
Stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
resting on a layer of connective tissue (dermis)
Relatively dry layer serves protective function

5-76

Membranes
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Mucous coat
Cilia

Epithelium

Mucin in
goblet cell
Ciliated cells of
pseudostratified
epithelium

Basement
membrane

Mucous
membrane
(mucosa)

Blood vessel
Lamina
propria

Collagen fibers
Fibroblast
Elastic fibers

(a)

Figure
5.33a

Muscularis
mucosae

Mucous membrane (mucosa) lines passages that

open to the external environment
5-77

Membranes
Cont.
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
Epithelium, absorptive, ciliated, and other types of
cells
Lamina propriaareolar connective tissue
Muscularis mucosaesmooth muscle layer

Absorptive, secretory, and protective functions

Goblet cells produce mucus

5-78

Membranes
Serous membrane (serosa)internal
membrane
Simple squamous epithelium resting on a layer of
areolar tissue
Produces serous fluid that arises from blood
Covers organs and lines walls of body cavities
Endothelium lines blood vessels and heart
Mesothelium lines body cavities (pericardium, peritoneum,
and pleura)

Synovial membranelines joint cavities

Connective tissue layer only, secretes synovial fluid
5-79

Tissue Growth, Development,

Repair, and Degeneration
Expected Learning Outcomes
Name and describe the modes of tissue growth.
Define adult and embryonic stem cells and their
varied degrees of developmental plasticity.
Name and describe the ways that a tissue can
change from one type to another.
Name and describe the modes and causes of tissue
shrinkage and death.
Name and describe the ways the body repairs
damaged tissues.
5-80

Tissue Growth
Tissue growthincreasing the number of cells or
the existing cells grow larger
Hyperplasiatissue growth through cell
multiplication
Hypertrophyenlargement of preexisting cells
Muscle growth through exercise
Accumulation of body fat

Neoplasiadevelopment of a tumor (neoplasm)

Benign or malignant
Composed of abnormal, nonfunctional tissue
5-81

Tissue Development
Tissues can change types within certain limits
Differentiation
Unspecialized tissues of embryo become specialized
mature types
Mesenchyme to muscle

Metaplasia
Changing from one type of mature tissue to another
Simple cuboidal tissue of vagina before puberty changes to
stratified squamous after puberty
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium of bronchi of smokers
to stratified squamous epithelium
5-82

Stem Cells
Stem cellsundifferentiated cells that are not yet
performing any specialized function
Have potential to differentiate into one or more types of
mature functional cells

Developmental plasticitydiversity of mature cell

types to which stem cells can give rise

5-83

Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells
Totipotent: have potential to develop into any type of fully
differentiated human cell
Sourcecells of very early embryo

Pluripotent: can develop into any type of cell in the

embryo
Sourcecells of inner cell mass of embryo

Adult stem cellsundifferentiated cells in tissues

of adults
Multipotent: bone marrow producing several blood cell
types
Unipotent: most limited plasticity; only epidermal cells
produced
5-84

Tissue Repair
Damaged tissues can be repaired in two ways:
Regeneration: replacement of dead or damaged cells
by the same type of cell as before
Restores normal function
Skin injuries and liver regenerate

Fibrosis: replacement of damaged cells with scar

tissue
Holds organs together
Does not restore normal function
Severe cuts and burns, healing of muscle injuries, scarring
of lungs in tuberculosis

5-85

Tissue Repair
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Healing of a cut in the skin:

Severed blood vessels bleed into
cut
Mast cells and damaged cells
release histamine
Dilates blood vessels
Increases blood flow to area
Makes capillaries more permeable

1 Bleeding into the wound

Figure 5.34 (1)

Blood plasma seeps into the

wound carrying:
Antibodies
Clotting proteins
Blood cells
5-86

Tissue Repair
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Blood clot forms in the

tissue
Loosely knitting edges of cut
together
Inhibits spread of pathogens
from injury site to healthy tissue

Scab
Blood clot
Macrophages
Fibroblasts

Forms scab that temporarily

seals wound and blocks
infection
Macrophages phagocytize
and digest tissue debris

Leukocytes

2 Scab formation and

macrophage activity

Figure 5.34 (2)

5-87

Tissue Repair
New capillaries sprout
from nearby vessels and
grow into wound
Deeper portions become
infiltrated by capillaries and
fibroblasts
Transform into soft mass
called granulation tissue
Macrophages remove the
blood clot
Fibroblasts deposit new
collagen
Begins 34 days after injury
and lasts up to 2 weeks

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scab

Macrophages
Fibroblasts
Blood
capillary
Granulation
tissue

3 Formation of granulation tissue

(fibroblastic phase of repair)

Figure 5.34 (3)

5-88

Tissue Repair
Surface epithelial cells
around wound multiply and
migrate into wound area
beneath scab
Epithelium regenerates
Connective tissue undergoes
fibrosis
Scar tissue may or may not Epidermal
regrowth
Scar tissue
show through epithelium
(fibrosis)
Remodeling (maturation)
phase begins several weeks
after injury and may last up to 2
years

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4 Epithelial regeneration and connective

tissue fibrosis (remodeling phase of repair)

Figure 5.34 (4)

5-89

Tissue Degeneration and Death

Atrophyshrinkage of a tissue through a loss in cell
size or number
Senile atrophy through normal aging
Disuse atrophy from lack of use (astronauts)

Necrosispremature, pathological death of tissue due to

trauma, toxins, or infections
Infarctionsudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
Gangrenetissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply
Decubitus ulcerbed sore or pressure sore
Pressure reduces blood flow to an area
Form of dry gangrene
Gas gangreneanaerobic bacterial infection
5-90

Tissue Degeneration and Death

Apoptosisprogrammed cell death
Normal death of cells that have completed their function and
best serve the body by dying and getting out of the way

Phagocytized by macrophages and other cells

Billions of cells die by apoptosis
Every cell has a built-in suicide program
Extracellular suicide signal binds receptor protein in the
plasma membrane called Fas
Fas activates enzymes: endonuclease chops up DNA and
protease destroys proteins

5-91

Tissue Engineering
Tissue engineeringartificial production of
tissues and organs in the lab for implantation in
the human body
Framework of collagen or biodegradable polyester
fibers
Seeded with human cells
Grown in bioreactor (inside of mouse)
Supplies nutrients and oxygen to growing tissue

5-92

Tissue Engineering
Skin grafts already available
Research in progress on heart valves, coronary
arteries, bone, liver, tendons
Human outer ear grown on back of mouse and recent
replacement of urinary bladder wall sections

Figure 5.35
5-93

The Stem-Cell Controversy

Possible treatment for diseases caused by loss of
functional cell types by embryonic stem cells
Cardiac muscle cells, injured spinal cord, insulinsecreting cells

Skin and bone marrow stem cells have been used

in therapy for years
Adult stem cells have limited developmental
potential
Difficult to harvest and culture

5-94

5-95