Ohms Law
McGraw-Hill
Ohms Law
Ohm's law states that, in an
Ohms Law:
I = V/R
V = IR
R = V/I
where:
I = Current
V = Voltage
R = Resistance
Fig. 3-4: A circle diagram to help in memorizing the Ohms Law formulas V = IR, I = V/R,
and R= V/I. The V is always at the top.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 3-1: Increasing the applied voltage V produces more current I to light the bulb with
more intensity.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
I =
V
I R
20 V
=5A
4
1A
12 V = 1A 12 = 12 V
?
3A
6V
6V
=2
R =
3A
Problem
Problem
How much is the current, I, in a 470-k resistor if its
voltage is 23.5 V?
Fig. 3.5: Experiment to show that I increases in direct proportion to V with the same R. (a)
Circuit with variable V but constant R. (b) Table of increasing I for higher V. (c) Graph of V
and I values. This is a linear volt-ampere characteristic. It shows a direct proportion
between V and I.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
linear resistors.
+
0 to 9 Volts
_
Amperes
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Volts
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
units.
Power is different. It is the time rate of doing work.
Power = work / time.
Work = power time.
1 volt =
1 joule
1 coulomb
and 1 ampere =
1 coulomb
1 second
1 joule
1 joule
1 coulomb
=
Power (1 watt) =
1 second
1 coulomb
1 second
Problem
How much is the output voltage of a power supply if it
current.
Problem
Where:
P = Power
V = Voltage
I = Current
R=Resistance
V = IR
I= V
R
Substitute IR for V to obtain:
P = VI
= (IR)I
= I 2R
P = VI
5A
20 V
P = VI = 20 5 = 100 W
4
P = I R = 25 4 = 100 W
2
400
V
= 100 W
P=
=
R
4
Problem
What is the resistance of a device that dissipates 1.2
circuit:
Determine the required resistance value as R = V / I.
Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor using any
Problem
Determine the required resistance and appropriate
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objective of Lecture
Explain mathematically how resistors in series are
Series Resistors
0 Vin V1 V2
0 Vin V1 V2
Use Ohms Law
V1 IR1
V2 IR2
0 Vin V1 V2
Use Ohms Law
V1 IR1
V2 IR2
Substitute into KVL
Equivalent Resistance:
Series Connections
Req is equal to the sum
of the resistors in
series.
In this case:
Req = R1 + R2
Vin I
s 1
Req Rs
s 1
Parallel Resistors
0 I in I1 I 2
0 I in I1 I 2
Use Ohms Law
VR I1 R1
VR I 2 R2
0 I in I1 I 2
Use Ohms Law
VR I1 R1
VR I 2 R2
Substitute into KCL
equation
0 I in VR R1 VR R2
I in VR 1 R1 1 R2
I in VR R1 R2 / R1 R2
Equivalent Resistance:
Parallel Connections
1/Req is equal to the
sum of the inverse of
each of the resistors in
parallel.
In this case:
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2
Simplifying
(only for 2 resistors in parallel)
General Equations:
Parallel Resistors
If P resistors are in parallel, then
current
flowing into and out of
p 1 R p
P
I in
p 1 R p
Req
In this example
1/Geq = 1/G1 + 1/G2
Simplifying
(only for 2 conductors in series)
Electronic Response:
For the same value resistors
Summary
The equivalent resistance and conductance of
1
Geq
s 1 Gs
Req Rs
s 1
p 1 R p
Req
-1
Geq G p
p 1
Objective of Lecture
Explain mathematically how a voltage that is applied to
Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current
Vin
Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law and Ohms Law :
Vin
0 Vin V1 V2
V
1
-
V1 IR1
+
V
2
_
V2 IR2
Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law and Ohms Law :
Vin
0 Vin V1 V2
V
1
-
V1 IR1
V2 IR2
V2 V1 R1 R2
+
V
2
_
V1 R1 R1 R2 Vin
V2 R2 R1 R2 Vin
Voltage Division
The voltage associated with one resistor Rn in a chain
of multiple resistors in series is:
Vn
Rn
Vtotal
R
s
s 1
or
Rn
Vn
Vtotal
Req
Voltage Division
The percentage of the total voltage associated with a
Example 1
Find the V1, the voltage across
+
V
1
-
+
V
2
_
Example 1
Voltage across R1 is:
V1 R1 R1 R2 Vtotal
+
V
1
-
V2 R2 R1 R2 Vtotal
+
V
2
_
Example 2
Find the voltages listed in the
+
V1
+
V2
-
+
V3
-
Example 2 (cont)
Req 200 400 100
Req 700
V1 200 / 700 1V
V1 0.286V
V2 400 / 700 1V
+
V1
+
V2
-
V2 0.571V
V3 100 / 700 1V
V3 0.143V
Check: V1 + V2 + V3 = 1V
+
V3
-
Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage
Vin
Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage
From Kirchoffs Current Law and Ohms Law :
+
0 I in I1 I 2 I 3
Vin
Vin I1 R1
Vin I 2 R2
Vin I 3 R3
Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage
Vin
I1
I2
I3
R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
R1 R3
R2 R1 R3
R1 R2
R3 R1 R2
I in
I in
I in
Current Division
Alternatively, you can reduce the
number of resistors in parallel from 3 to
2 using an equivalent resistor.
+
Vin
Current Division
Vin
Req
R2 R3
where Req R2 R3
and I1
I in
R2 R3
R1 Req
Current Division
The current associated
with one resistor R1 in
parallel with one other
resistor is:
R2
I1
I total
R1 R2
Req
Im
I total
Rm
Current Division
The largest value resistor has the smallest amount of
Example 3
Find currents I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit to the right.
Example 3 (cont)
Req 1 200 1 400 1 600 109
1
I1 109 / 200 4 A
I1 2.18 A
I 2 109 / 400 4 A
I 2 1.09 A
I 3 109 / 600 4 A
I 3 0.727 A
Check: I1 + I2 + I3 = Iin
Example 4
The circuit to the right
I1
+
V1
_
I2
I3
+
Vp
_
Example 4 (cont)
I1
+
+
V1
Vtota
l
I2
I3
+
Vp
Example 4 (cont)
I1
Second, calculate
the equivalent
resistor that can be
used to replace the
parallel combination
of R2 and R3.
Req1
R2 R3
R2 R3
400100
Req1
400 100
Req1 80
+
+
V1
_
Vtota
l
+
Vp
_
Example 4 (cont)
I1
To calculate the
Req 2 200 80
Vtota
l
Req 2 280
_
Example 4 (cont)
Vtotal
I1
Req 2
1V 0.5V sin( 20t )
I1
280
1V
0.5V sin( 20t )
I1
280
280
I1 3.57 mA 1.79mA sin( 20t )
I1
Vtota
l
Example 4 (cont)
I1
+
+
V1
_
Vtota
l
+
V1 R1 I1
Vp
Example 4 (cont)
I1
To calculate Vp:
Vp
Req1
R1 Req1
Vtotal
+
+
or
V p Req1 I1
or
V p Vtotal V1
V p 0.287V 0.143V sin( 20t )
Note: rounding errors can occur. It is best to
carry the calculations out to 5 or 6 significant
figures and then reduce this to 3 significant
figures when writing the final answer.
V1
_
Vtota
l
+
Vp
_
Example 4 (cont)
Finally, use the
I1
+
V1
R3
I2
I1
R2 R3
or
I2
_
I2
Req1
R2
I1
I3
+
Vp
_
Example 4 (cont)
Lastly, the
I1
R2
I3
I1
R2 R3
V1
_
or
I3
Req1
R3
I1
or
I 3 I1 I 2
I 3 2.86mA 1.43mA sin( 20t )
I2
I3
+
Vp
_
Summary
The equations used to
Rn
Vn
Vtotal
Req
Geq
Vn
Vtotal
Gn
Im
Rm
I total
Gm
Im
I total
Geq
Kirchhoffs Laws
i
n 1
enter
node
leave
node
v0
m 1
drops
v rises
Example 1
Determine I, the current flowing out of the voltage
source.
Use KCL
1.9 mA + 0.5 mA + I are
Example 2
Suppose the current through R2 was entering the node
Example 3
If voltage drops are given instead of currents, you
Example 3 (cont)
For power dissipating
components such as
resistors, passive sign
convention means that
current flows into the
resistor at the terminal
has the + sign on the
voltage drop and
leaves out the terminal
that has the sign.
Example 3 (cont)
I1 2V / 7 k 0.286mA
I 2 4V / 2k 2mA
I 3 1.75V / 5k 0.35mA
Example 3 (cont)
I1 is leaving the node.
I2 is entering the node.
I3 is entering the node.
I is entering the node.
I 2 I 3 I I1
2mA 0.35mA I 0.286mA
I 0.286mA 2.35mA 2.06mA
Example 4
Find the voltage across R1. Note that the polarity of
Example 4 (cont)
There are three possible loops in this circuit only two
include R1.
Either loop may be used to determine VR1.
Example 4 (cont)
If the outer loop is used:
Follow the loop clockwise.
Example 4 (cont)
Follow the loop in a clockwise direction.
The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.
VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
The loop enters R2 on the positive side of the voltage drop and exits out
the negative side. This is a voltage drop as the voltage becomes less
Example 4 (cont)
By convention, voltage drops are added and voltage
5V VR1 3V 0
VR1 2V
Example 4 (cont)
Suppose you chose the blue loop instead.
Since R2 is in parallel with I1, the voltage drop across
R2 is also 3V.
Example 4 (cont)
The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.
VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
The loop enters R2 on the positive side of the voltage drop and exits out the
positive
Example 4 (cont)
As should happen, the answer is the same.
5V VR1 3V 0
VR1 2V
Example 5
Find the voltage across R2 and the current flowing
through it.
First, draw a loop that includes R2.
Example 5 (cont)
There are two loops that include R2.
The one on the left can be used to solve for VR2
immediately.
Example 5 (cont)
Following the loop in a clockwise direction.
The 11.5V drop associated with V1 is a voltage rise.
The 2.4V associated with R1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is treated as a voltage drop.
Example 5 (cont)
11.5V 2.4V VR 2 0
VR 2 9.1V
Example 5 (cont)
If you used the right-hand loop, the voltage drop
Example 5 (cont)
Since R3 is a resistor, passive convention means that the
Example 5 (cont)
Use Ohms Law to find VR3.
VR 3 1mA(1.1k) 1.1V
Example 5 (cont)
Moving clockwise around the loop:
VR3 is a voltage drop.
The voltage associated with I1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is a voltage rise.
Example 5 (cont)
Again, the same answer is found.
1.1V 8V VR 2 0
VR 2 9.1V
Example 5 (cont)
Once the voltage across R2 is known, Ohms Law is
IR2
Example 5 (cont)
I R 2 9.1V / 4.7 k
I R 2 1.94mA
IR2
Note:
If you use KCL and Ohms Law, you could find out
Summary
The currents at a node can be calculated using
Objective of Lecture
Describe what a single node, a distributed node, branch,
Chapter 2.3
connection.
Chapter 2.3
Nodes
Nodes are the region
Nodes
There are three nodes
in this circuit.
One node connects
resistor R1 to the
independent voltage
course.
Black dot with the blue
Nodes
A node can be a point.
E.g., the black point
along a wire.
E.g., the blue dashed area
where there is a
connection between a) the
current source and the two
resistors and b) the current
source, the voltage source
and one of the resistors
Nodes
All current entering a
charge to appear or
disappear from the circuit
For example, in the
enter
node
leave
node
Branches
Branches are single
elements in a circuit
such as a voltage
source or resistor,
located between two
nodes.
This circuit has four
branches:
1 independent current
source
1 independent voltage
source
2 resistors
Series Connections
If the two branches
are connected by a
node and they carry
the same current, they
are in series.
The resistor and
independent voltage
source are in series.
Parallel Connection
A set of components
combinations of
components that are in
parallel in this circuit,
which share the two
distributed nodes.
Parallel Connection
The voltage drop across
+
Vc
-
is 5V.
The voltage drop across R1
and the voltage source is
6V 1V = 5V.
Therefore, the voltage drop
across the 3A current
source must be Vc = 5V.
Node Voltage
Node voltage is the
measurement of the
voltage at a node with
respect to ground.
This concept is used in
Voltage Drop
Voltage drop is the
difference in node
voltages at the two
extremes of the series of
components.
The voltage drop across
a resistor is calculated
using Ohms Law.
Loops
Loops are closed
loops.
Loops
The sum of voltage
v0
loop
Summary
The identification of the nodes, branches, and loops in a
Ohms Law.
Objective of Lecture
Describe the equations that relate the resistances in a
subcircuits.
systems
Wye (Y)
Delta ()
T and
Drawn as a 4 terminal
arrangement of
components.
T and
2 of the terminals are
Simplification
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R, then Ra = Rb =Rc = 3R
If Ra = Rb = Rc = R, then R1 = R2 = R3 = R/3
Uses
Distribution of 3 phase power
Distribution of power in stators and windings in
motors/generators.
Wye windings provide better torque at low rpm and
Bridge Circuits
Measurement of the voltage
VC R RD R VT
VD RD RD R VT
+
VC
VT
VCD VC VD
VCD R RD ( RD R ) VT
VCD 1 / 1 R R VT
VD
Summary
There is a conversion between the resistances used in
Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now
techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)
Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the
Planar vs Nonpalanar
The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0
R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2
Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a
supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.
Creating a Supermesh
mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.
Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh
intersect.
i2 i1 6
i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL
Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at
how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2
At node 2
I 2 i2 i3
v1 v1 v2
R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3
I1 I 2
Substituting
back into the
node
equations
or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2
nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.
Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or
i1 i4 i2 i3
v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0
2
4
8
6
supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides
by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21
G12
G22
GN 1 GN 2
G1N
G2 N
GNN
v1
v2
vN
i1
i
2
iN
mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21
R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2
R
R
R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12
circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.
Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes
Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors
Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be
interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two
Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye
transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc
78
Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3
Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now
techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)
Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the
81
Planar vs Nonpalanar
83
The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0
R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2
84
Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a
supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.
87
Creating a Supermesh
mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.
Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh
intersect.
i2 i1 6
i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL
Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at
90
how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2
At node 2
I 2 i2 i3
v1 v1 v2
R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3
I1 I 2
Substituting
back into the
node
equations
or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2
92
nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.
Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or
i1 i4 i2 i3
v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0
2
4
8
6
94
supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides
by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21
G12
G22
GN 1 GN 2
G1N
G2 N
GNN
v1
v2
vN
i1
i
2
iN
mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21
R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2
R
R
R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12
circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.
Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes
03
Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors
04
Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be
interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two
05
06
Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye
transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc
07
Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3
Overview
The concept of superposition will be introduced.
Source transformation will also be covered.
Thevenin and Nortons theorems will be covered.
Examples of applications for these concepts will be
presented.
Linearity
Linearity in a circuit means that as current is changed,
Superposition
If there are two or more independent sources there
Applying Superposition
Using superposition means applying one independent source
at a time
Dependent sources are left alone
The steps are:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
12
13
By CDR:
14
THEN:
Source Transformation
Much like the delta-wye transformation, it is
17
Source Transformation II
A source transformation is the process of replacing
Terminal Equivalency
These transformations work because the two
19
Example 1
By KVL:
Example 1, (contd)
By CDR:
21
Dependent Sources
Source transformation also applies to dependent
sources
But, the dependent variable must be handled
carefully
The same relationship between the voltage and
current holds here:
22
Example 2
Thevenins Theorem
In many circuits, one element will be variable
An example of this is mains power; many different
25
Thevenins Theorem II
Thevenins theorem states that
26
equivalent resistance
Case 1: If there are no dependent sources, then
the resistance may be found by simply turning off
all the sources
27
Thevenins Theorem IV
Case 2: If there are dependent
Thevenins Theorem V
Thevenins theorem is very powerful in circuit analysis.
It allows one to simplify a circuit
A large circuit may be replaced by a single
29
Example
30
Example, contd
Example
32
Example, contd
Example, contd
(1)
(2)
Then:
34
Nortons Theorem
Similar to Thevenins
35
Nortons Theorem II
The Norton current IN is found by short circuiting the
I N I sc
other
One need only look at source transformation to
understand this
The Norton current and Thevein voltage are related
to each other as follows:
VTh
IN
RTh
load
Among those applications there are many cases
where we wish to maximize the power transferred to
the load
Unlike an ideal source, internal resistance will restrict
the conditions where maximum power is transferred.
39
VTh
RL
RTh RL
40
Realistic Sources
The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are
42
Example
For Vth:
By VDR:
By KVL:
Then:
Millmans Theorem
This is a combination of source transformation and
45
Millman II
Here is an illustrated guide to the theorem
Millman III
The steps for applying the theorem are:
1.Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2.Algebraically combine all parallel current sources and
Example
Step 2.
Step 1.
Step 3.
Example (contd)
14.88
0.150
Substitution Theorem
The substitution theorem states that in a linear
50
Example
51
Example
Reciprocity Theorem
This applies only to single source circuits.
There are two cases:
Case 1 Voltage Sources
If the sources located in branch A causes a current I in
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Reciprocity II
54
Example
55
Example
56
Example
57
Example
Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now
techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)
Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the
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Planar vs Nonpalanar
62
The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0
R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2
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Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a
supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.
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Creating a Supermesh
mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.
Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh
intersect.
i2 i1 6
i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL
Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at
69
how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2
At node 2
I 2 i2 i3
v1 v1 v2
R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3
I1 I 2
Substituting
back into the
node
equations
or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2
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nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.
Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or
i1 i4 i2 i3
v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0
2
4
8
6
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supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides
by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21
G12
G22
GN 1 GN 2
G1N
G2 N
GNN
v1
v2
vN
i1
i
2
iN
mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21
R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2
R
R
R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12
circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.
Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes
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Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors
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Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be
interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two
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Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye
transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc
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Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta
transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3