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Chapter

Ohms Law

Topics Covered in Chapter 3


3-1: The Current I = V/R
3-2: The Voltage V = IR
3-3: The Resistance R = V/I
3-4: Practical Units
3-5: Multiple and Submultiple Units
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Topics Covered in Chapter 3


3-6: The Linear Proportion between V and I
3-7: Electric Power
3-8: Power Dissipation in Resistance
3-9: Power Formulas
3-10: Choosing a Resistor for a Circuit
3-11: Electric Shock
3-12: Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Troubles

McGraw-Hill

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ohms Law
Ohm's law states that, in an

electrical circuit, the current


passing through most
materials is directly
proportional to the potential
difference applied across
them.

3-13-3: Ohms Law Formulas


There are three forms of

Ohms Law:
I = V/R
V = IR
R = V/I

where:
I = Current
V = Voltage
R = Resistance

Fig. 3-4: A circle diagram to help in memorizing the Ohms Law formulas V = IR, I = V/R,
and R= V/I. The V is always at the top.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3-1: The Current I = V/R


I = V/R
In practical units, this law

may be stated as:


amperes = volts / ohms

Fig. 3-1: Increasing the applied voltage V produces more current I to light the bulb with
more intensity.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3-4: Practical Units


The three forms of Ohms law can be used to define the

practical units of current, voltage, and resistance:


1 ampere = 1 volt / 1 ohm
1 volt = 1 ampere 1 ohm
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere

3-4: Practical Units


Applying Ohms Law
?
20 V

I =

V
I R

20 V
=5A
4

1A
12 V = 1A 12 = 12 V

?
3A
6V

6V
=2
R =
3A

Problem

Solve for the resistance, R, when V and I are known


a. V = 14 V, I = 2 A, R = ?
b. V = 25 V, I = 5 A, R = ?
c. V = 6 V, I = 1.5 A, R = ?
d. V = 24 V, I = 4 A, R = ?

3-5: Multiple and Submultiple


Units
Units of Voltage
The basic unit of voltage is the volt (V).
Multiple units of voltage are:
kilovolt (kV)

1 thousand volts or 103 V


megavolt (MV)
1 million volts or 106 V

Submultiple units of voltage are:


millivolt (mV)

1-thousandth of a volt or 10-3 V


microvolt (V)
1-millionth of a volt or 10-6 V

3-5: Multiple and Submultiple


Units
Units of Current
The basic unit of current is the ampere (A).
Submultiple units of current are:
milliampere (mA)
1-thousandth of an ampere or 10-3 A
microampere (A)
1-millionth of an ampere or 10-6 A

3-5: Multiple and Submultiple


Units
Units of Resistance
The basic unit of resistance is the Ohm ().
Multiple units of resistance are:
kilohm (k)
1 thousand ohms or 103
Megohm (M)
1 million ohms or 106

Problem
How much is the current, I, in a 470-k resistor if its

voltage is 23.5 V?

How much voltage will be dropped across a 40 k

resistance whose current is 250 A?

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
The Ohms Law formula I = V/R states that V and I are

directly proportional for any one value of R.

Fig. 3.5: Experiment to show that I increases in direct proportion to V with the same R. (a)
Circuit with variable V but constant R. (b) Table of increasing I for higher V. (c) Graph of V
and I values. This is a linear volt-ampere characteristic. It shows a direct proportion
between V and I.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
When V is constant:
I decreases as R increases.
I increases as R decreases.
Examples:
If R doubles, I is reduced by half.
If R is reduced to , I increases by 4.
This is known as an inverse relationship.

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
Linear Resistance
A linear resistance has a constant value of ohms. Its R
does not change with the applied voltage, so V and I
are directly proportional.
Carbon-film and metal-film resistors are examples of

linear resistors.

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
1

+
0 to 9 Volts
_

Amperes

4
3
2

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Volts

The smaller the resistor, the steeper the slope.

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
Nonlinear Resistance
In a nonlinear resistance, increasing the applied V
produces more current, but I does not increase in the
same proportion as the increase in V.
Example of a Nonlinear VoltAmpere Relationship:
As the tungsten filament in a light bulb gets hot, its
resistance increases.

3-6: The Linear Proportion


between V and I
Another nonlinear resistance is a thermistor.
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance value

changes with its operating temperature.


As an NTC (negative temperature coefficient)
thermistor gets hot, its resistance decreases.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3-7: Electric Power


The basic unit of power is the watt (W).
Multiple units of power are:
kilowatt (kW):

1000 watts or 103 W


megawatt (MW):
1 million watts or 106 W

Submultiple units of power are:


milliwatt (mW):

1-thousandth of a watt or 10-3 W


microwatt (W):
1-millionth of a watt or 10-6 W

3-7: Electric Power


Work and energy are basically the same, with identical

units.
Power is different. It is the time rate of doing work.
Power = work / time.
Work = power time.

3-7: Electric Power


Practical Units of Power and Work:
The rate at which work is done (power) equals the
product of voltage and current. This is derived as
follows:
First, recall that:

1 volt =

1 joule
1 coulomb

and 1 ampere =

1 coulomb
1 second

3-7: Electric Power


Power = Volts Amps, or
P=VI

1 joule
1 joule
1 coulomb

=
Power (1 watt) =
1 second
1 coulomb
1 second

3-7: Electric Power


Kilowatt Hours
The kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit commonly used for
large amounts of electrical work or energy.
For example, electric bills are calculated in kilowatt

hours. The kilowatt hour is the billing unit.


The amount of work (energy) can be found by

multiplying power (in kilowatts) time in hours.

3-7: Electric Power


To calculate electric cost, start with the power:
An air conditioner operates at 240 volts and 20
amperes.
The power is P = V I = 240 20 = 4800 watts.
Convert to kilowatts:
4800 watts = 4.8 kilowatts
Multiply by hours: (Assume it runs half the day)
energy = 4.8 kW 12 hours = 57.6 kWh
Multiply by rate: (Assume a rate of $0.08/ kWh)
cost = 57.6 $0.08 = $4.61 per day

Problem
How much is the output voltage of a power supply if it

supplies 75 W of power while delivering a current of 5


A?

How much does it cost to light a 300-W light bulb for

30 days if the cost of the electricity is 7/kWh.

3-8: Power Dissipation in


Resistance
When current flows in a resistance, heat is produced

from the friction between the moving free electrons and


the atoms obstructing their path.
Heat is evidence that power is used in producing

current.

3-8: Power Dissipation in


Resistance
The amount of power dissipated in a resistance may be

calculated using any one of three formulas, depending


on which factors are known:
P = I2R
P = V2 / R
P = VI

Problem

Solve for the power, P, dissipated by the resistance,


R
I = 1 A, R = 100 , P = ?
b. I = 20 mA, R = 1 k , P = ?
c. V = 5 V, R = 150 , P = ?
d. V = 22.36 V, R = 1 k , P = ?
a.

How much power is dissipated by an 8- load if the


current in the load is 200 mA?

3-9: Power Formulas


There are three basic power formulas, but each can be
in three forms for nine combinations.

Where:
P = Power

V = Voltage

I = Current

R=Resistance

3-9: Power Formulas


Combining Ohms Law and the Power Formula
All nine power formulas are based on Ohms Law.

V = IR
I= V
R
Substitute IR for V to obtain:
P = VI

= (IR)I

= I 2R

P = VI

3-9: Power Formulas


Combining Ohms Law and the Power Formula
Substitute V/R for I to obtain:
P = VI
= V V/ R
= V2 / R

3-9: Power Formulas


Applying Power Formulas:

5A
20 V

P = VI = 20 5 = 100 W
4

P = I R = 25 4 = 100 W
2
400
V
= 100 W
P=
=
R
4

Problem
What is the resistance of a device that dissipates 1.2

kW of power when its current is 10 A?


How much current does a 960 W coffeemaker draw

from the 120 V power line?

What is the resistance of a 20 W, 12 V halogen lamp?

3-10: Choosing a Resistor


for a Circuit
Follow these steps when choosing a resistor for a

circuit:
Determine the required resistance value as R = V / I.
Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor using any

of the power formulas.


Select a wattage rating for the resistor that will provide
an adequate cushion between the actual power
dissipation and the resistors power rating.
Ideally, the power dissipation in a resistor should never
be more than 50% of its power rating.

Problem
Determine the required resistance and appropriate

wattage rating of a carbon-film resistor to meet the


following requirements. The resistor has a 54-V IR
drop when its current is 20 mA. The resistors available
have the following wattage ratings:
1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2 W, 1 W, and 2 W.

3-10: Choosing a Resistor


for a Circuit
Maximum Working Voltage Rating
A resistors maximum working voltage rating is the
maximum voltage a resistor can withstand without
internal arcing.
The higher the wattage rating of the resistor, the higher

the maximum working voltage rating.

3-10: Choosing a Resistor


for a Circuit
Maximum Working Voltage Rating
With very large resistance values, the maximum
working voltage rating may be exceeded before the
power rating is exceeded.
For any resistor, the maximum voltage which produces

the rated power dissipation is:


Vmax =
Prating R
Exceeding Vmax causes the resistors power dissipation

to exceed its power rating

3-11: Electric Shock


When possible, work only on circuits that have the

power shut off.


If the power must be on, use only one hand when

making voltage measurements.


Keep yourself insulated from earth ground.
Hand-to-hand shocks can be very dangerous because

current is likely to flow through the heart!

3-12: Open-Circuit and


Short-Circuit Troubles
An open circuit has zero current flow.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3-12: Open-Circuit and


Short-Circuit Troubles
A short circuit has excessive current flow.
As R approaches 0, I approaches .

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Series and Parallel Resistors

Objective of Lecture
Explain mathematically how resistors in series are

combined and their equivalent resistance.


Chapter 2.5

Explain mathematically how resistors in parallel are

combined and their equivalent resistance.


Chapter 2.6

Rewrite the equations for conductances.

Series Resistors

Series Resistors (cont)


Use KVL

0 Vin V1 V2

Series Resistors (cont)


Use KVL

0 Vin V1 V2
Use Ohms Law

V1 IR1

V2 IR2

Series Resistors (cont)


Use KVL

0 Vin V1 V2
Use Ohms Law

V1 IR1
V2 IR2
Substitute into KVL

0 Vin IR1 IR2


equation
Vin IR1 IR2 I ( R1 R2 )

Equivalent Resistance:
Series Connections
Req is equal to the sum
of the resistors in
series.
In this case:
Req = R1 + R2

General Equations: Series


Resistors
If S resistors are in series, then

Vin I

s 1

Req Rs
s 1

where Vin may be the applied

voltage or the total voltage


dropped across all of the
resistors in series.

Parallel Resistors

Parallel Resistor (cont)


Use KCL

0 I in I1 I 2

Parallel Resistor (cont)


Use KCL

0 I in I1 I 2
Use Ohms Law

VR I1 R1
VR I 2 R2

Parallel Resistor (cont)


Use KCL

0 I in I1 I 2
Use Ohms Law

VR I1 R1
VR I 2 R2
Substitute into KCL
equation
0 I in VR R1 VR R2
I in VR 1 R1 1 R2

I in VR R1 R2 / R1 R2

Equivalent Resistance:
Parallel Connections
1/Req is equal to the
sum of the inverse of
each of the resistors in
parallel.
In this case:
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2
Simplifying
(only for 2 resistors in parallel)

Req = R1R2 /(R1 + R2)

General Equations:
Parallel Resistors
If P resistors are in parallel, then

where Iin may be the total


VR

current
flowing into and out of
p 1 R p
P

I in

the nodes shared by the


parallel resistors.

p 1 R p

Req

If you used G instead of R


In series:
The reciprocal of the
equivalent conductance is
equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of each of the
conductors in series

In this example
1/Geq = 1/G1 + 1/G2
Simplifying
(only for 2 conductors in series)

Geq = G1G2 /(G1 + G2)

If you used G instead of R


In parallel:
The equivalent
conductance is equal to
the sum of all of the
conductors in parallel
In this example:
Geq = G1 + G2

Electronic Response:
For the same value resistors

As you increase the number of resistors in series


Does Req increases or decreases?

As you increase the number of resistors in parallel


Does Req increases or decreases?

Summary
The equivalent resistance and conductance of

resistors in series are:


S

1
Geq
s 1 Gs

Req Rs
s 1

where S is the total number of resistors in series.


The equivalent resistance and conductance of

resistors in parallel are:

p 1 R p

Req

-1

Geq G p
p 1

where P is the total number of resistors in parallel.

Voltage and Current Division

Objective of Lecture
Explain mathematically how a voltage that is applied to

resistors in series is distributed among the resistors.


Chapter 2.5 in Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 5.7 Electric Circuit Fundamentals

Explain mathematically how a current that enters the a

node shared by resistors in parallel is distributed among


the resistors.
Chapter 2.6 in Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 6.7 in Electric Circuit Fundamentals

Work through examples include a series-parallel resistor

network (Example 4).


Chapter 7.2 in Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current

Vin

Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law and Ohms Law :

Vin

0 Vin V1 V2

V
1
-

V1 IR1

+
V
2
_

V2 IR2

Voltage Dividers
Resistors in series share the same current
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law and Ohms Law :

Vin

0 Vin V1 V2

V
1
-

V1 IR1
V2 IR2

V2 V1 R1 R2
+
V
2
_

V1 R1 R1 R2 Vin

V2 R2 R1 R2 Vin

Voltage Division
The voltage associated with one resistor Rn in a chain
of multiple resistors in series is:

Vn

Rn

Vtotal

R
s
s 1

or

Rn
Vn
Vtotal
Req

where Vtotal is the total of the voltages applied across


the resistors.

Voltage Division
The percentage of the total voltage associated with a

particular resistor is equal to the percentage that that


resistor contributed to the equivalent resistance, Req.
The largest value resistor has the largest voltage.

Example 1
Find the V1, the voltage across

R1, and V2, the voltage across


R2.

+
V
1
-

+
V
2
_

Example 1
Voltage across R1 is:

V1 R1 R1 R2 Vtotal

V1 3k 3k 4k 20V sin 377t


V1 8.57V sin 377t

Voltage across R2 is:

+
V
1
-

V2 R2 R1 R2 Vtotal

V2 4k 3k 4k 20V sin 377t


V2 11.4V sin 377t

Check: V1 + V2 should equal Vtotal


8.57 sin(377t)V + 11.4 sin(377t) =
20 sin(377t) V

+
V
2
_

Example 2
Find the voltages listed in the

circuit to the right.

+
V1
+
V2
-

+
V3
-

Example 2 (cont)
Req 200 400 100
Req 700
V1 200 / 700 1V
V1 0.286V
V2 400 / 700 1V

+
V1
+
V2
-

V2 0.571V
V3 100 / 700 1V
V3 0.143V

Check: V1 + V2 + V3 = 1V

+
V3
-

Symbol for Parallel Resistors


To make writing equations simpler,
we use a symbol to indicate that a
certain set of resistors are in
parallel.
Here, we would write
R1R2R3
to show that R1 is in parallel with
R2 and R3. This also means that
we should use the equation for
equivalent resistance if this symbol
is included in a mathematical
equation.

Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage

Vin

Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage
From Kirchoffs Current Law and Ohms Law :
+

0 I in I1 I 2 I 3

Vin

Vin I1 R1

Vin I 2 R2
Vin I 3 R3

Current Division
All resistors in parallel share the same voltage

Vin

I1
I2

I3

R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
R1 R3
R2 R1 R3
R1 R2
R3 R1 R2

I in
I in
I in

Current Division
Alternatively, you can reduce the
number of resistors in parallel from 3 to
2 using an equivalent resistor.
+

Vin

If you want to solve for current I1, then


find an equivalent resistor for R2 in
parallel with R3.

Current Division

Vin

Req
R2 R3
where Req R2 R3
and I1
I in
R2 R3
R1 Req

Current Division
The current associated
with one resistor R1 in
parallel with one other
resistor is:

R2
I1
I total
R1 R2

The current associated

with one resistor Rm in


parallel with two or more
resistors is:

Req
Im
I total
Rm

where Itotal is the total of the currents


entering the node shared by the resistors in
parallel.

Current Division
The largest value resistor has the smallest amount of

current flowing through it.

Example 3
Find currents I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit to the right.

Example 3 (cont)
Req 1 200 1 400 1 600 109
1

I1 109 / 200 4 A
I1 2.18 A
I 2 109 / 400 4 A
I 2 1.09 A
I 3 109 / 600 4 A
I 3 0.727 A

Check: I1 + I2 + I3 = Iin

Example 4
The circuit to the right

I1

has a series and


parallel combination
of resistors plus two
voltage sources.
Find V1 and Vp
Find I1, I2, and I3

+
V1
_
I2

I3
+
Vp
_

Example 4 (cont)
I1

First, calculate the

total voltage applied


to the network of
resistors.

+
+

V1

This is the addition of

two voltage sources in


series.

Vtotal 1V 0.5V sin(20t )

Vtota
l

I2

I3
+
Vp

Example 4 (cont)
I1

Second, calculate

the equivalent
resistor that can be
used to replace the
parallel combination
of R2 and R3.
Req1

R2 R3
R2 R3

400100
Req1
400 100
Req1 80

+
+

V1
_

Vtota
l
+
Vp
_

Example 4 (cont)
I1

To calculate the

value for I1, replace


the series
combination of R1
and Req1 with
another equivalent
resistor.
Req 2 R1 Req1

Req 2 200 80

Vtota
l

Req 2 280
_

Example 4 (cont)
Vtotal
I1
Req 2
1V 0.5V sin( 20t )
I1
280
1V
0.5V sin( 20t )
I1

280
280
I1 3.57 mA 1.79mA sin( 20t )

I1

Vtota
l

Example 4 (cont)
I1

To calculate V1, use

one of the previous


simplified circuits
where R1 is in series
with Req1.
R1
V1
Vtotal
R1 Req
or

+
+

V1
_

Vtota
l
+

V1 R1 I1

Vp

V1 0.714V 0.357V sin( 20t )


_

Example 4 (cont)
I1

To calculate Vp:

Vp

Req1
R1 Req1

Vtotal

+
+

or
V p Req1 I1
or
V p Vtotal V1
V p 0.287V 0.143V sin( 20t )
Note: rounding errors can occur. It is best to
carry the calculations out to 5 or 6 significant
figures and then reduce this to 3 significant
figures when writing the final answer.

V1
_

Vtota
l
+
Vp
_

Example 4 (cont)
Finally, use the

I1

original circuit to find


I2 and I3.

+
V1

R3
I2
I1
R2 R3
or
I2

_
I2

Req1
R2

I1

I 2 0.714mA 0.357 mA sin( 20t )

I3
+
Vp
_

Example 4 (cont)
Lastly, the

I1

calculation for I3.

R2
I3
I1
R2 R3

V1
_

or
I3

Req1
R3

I1

or
I 3 I1 I 2
I 3 2.86mA 1.43mA sin( 20t )

I2

I3
+
Vp
_

Summary
The equations used to

calculate the voltage


across a specific
resistor Rn in a set of
resistors in series are:

Rn
Vn
Vtotal
Req

Geq
Vn
Vtotal
Gn

The equations used to

calculate the current


flowing through a
specific resistor Rm in a
set of resistors in
Req
parallel are:

Im

Rm

I total

Gm
Im
I total
Geq

Kirchhoffs Laws

Objective of the Lecture


Present Kirchhoffs Current and Voltage Laws.
Chapter 2.4
Demonstrate how these laws can be used to find

currents and voltages in a circuit.


Chapter 2.4

Explain how these laws can be used in conjunction

with Ohms Law.


Chapter 2.4

Kirchhoffs Current Law


Or KCL for short
Based upon conservation of charge the algebraic sum
of the charge within a system can not change.
N

i
n 1

enter

node

Where N is the total number


of branches connected to a
node.

leave

node

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law


Or KVL for short
Based upon conservation of energy the algebraic sum
of voltages dropped across components around a loop
is zero.
M

v0

Where M is the total number of


branches in the loop.

m 1

drops

v rises

Example 1
Determine I, the current flowing out of the voltage

source.

Use KCL
1.9 mA + 0.5 mA + I are

entering the node.


3 mA is leaving the node.

1.9mA 0.5mA I 3mA


I 3mA (1.9mA 0.5mA)
I 0.6mA
V1 is generating power.

Example 2
Suppose the current through R2 was entering the node

and the current through R3 was leaving the node.


Use KCL
3 mA + 0.5 mA + I are

entering the node.


1.9 mA is leaving the node.

3mA 0.5mA I 1.9mA


I 1.9mA (3mA 0.5mA)
I 1.6mA
V1 is dissipating power.

Example 3
If voltage drops are given instead of currents, you

need to apply Ohms Law to determine the current


flowing through each of the resistors before you can
find the current flowing out of the voltage supply.

Example 3 (cont)
For power dissipating

components such as
resistors, passive sign
convention means that
current flows into the
resistor at the terminal
has the + sign on the
voltage drop and
leaves out the terminal
that has the sign.

Example 3 (cont)
I1 2V / 7 k 0.286mA
I 2 4V / 2k 2mA
I 3 1.75V / 5k 0.35mA

Example 3 (cont)
I1 is leaving the node.
I2 is entering the node.
I3 is entering the node.
I is entering the node.

I 2 I 3 I I1
2mA 0.35mA I 0.286mA
I 0.286mA 2.35mA 2.06mA

Example 4
Find the voltage across R1. Note that the polarity of

the voltage has been assigned in the circuit


schematic.
First, define a loop that include R1.

Example 4 (cont)
There are three possible loops in this circuit only two

include R1.
Either loop may be used to determine VR1.

Example 4 (cont)
If the outer loop is used:
Follow the loop clockwise.

Example 4 (cont)
Follow the loop in a clockwise direction.
The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.
VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
The loop enters R2 on the positive side of the voltage drop and exits out

the negative side. This is a voltage drop as the voltage becomes less

positive as you move through the component.

Example 4 (cont)
By convention, voltage drops are added and voltage

rises are subtracted in KVL.

5V VR1 3V 0
VR1 2V

Example 4 (cont)
Suppose you chose the blue loop instead.
Since R2 is in parallel with I1, the voltage drop across
R2 is also 3V.

Example 4 (cont)
The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.
VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
The loop enters R2 on the positive side of the voltage drop and exits out the

negative side. This is a voltage drop as the voltage becomes less

as you move through the component.

positive

Example 4 (cont)
As should happen, the answer is the same.

5V VR1 3V 0
VR1 2V

Example 5
Find the voltage across R2 and the current flowing

through it.
First, draw a loop that includes R2.

Example 5 (cont)
There are two loops that include R2.
The one on the left can be used to solve for VR2
immediately.

Example 5 (cont)
Following the loop in a clockwise direction.
The 11.5V drop associated with V1 is a voltage rise.
The 2.4V associated with R1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is treated as a voltage drop.

Example 5 (cont)
11.5V 2.4V VR 2 0
VR 2 9.1V

Example 5 (cont)
If you used the right-hand loop, the voltage drop

across R3 must be calculated using Ohms Law.

Example 5 (cont)
Since R3 is a resistor, passive convention means that the

positive sign of the voltage drop will be assigned to the


end of R3 where current enters the resistor.
As I1 is in series with R3, the direction of current through
R3 is determined by the direction of current flowing out of
the current source.
Because I1 and R3 are in series, the magnitude of the
current flowing out of I1 must be equal to the magnitude of
the current flowing out of R3.

Example 5 (cont)
Use Ohms Law to find VR3.

VR 3 1mA(1.1k) 1.1V

Example 5 (cont)
Moving clockwise around the loop:
VR3 is a voltage drop.
The voltage associated with I1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is a voltage rise.

Example 5 (cont)
Again, the same answer is found.

1.1V 8V VR 2 0
VR 2 9.1V

Example 5 (cont)
Once the voltage across R2 is known, Ohms Law is

applied to determine the current.


The direction of positive current flow, based upon
passive sign convention is shown in red.

IR2

Example 5 (cont)
I R 2 9.1V / 4.7 k
I R 2 1.94mA

IR2

Note:
If you use KCL and Ohms Law, you could find out

what the value of R1 is in Example 5.

Summary
The currents at a node can be calculated using

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL).


The voltage dropped across components can be
calculated using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL).
Ohms Law is used to find some of the needed
currents and voltages to solve the problems.

Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Objective of Lecture
Describe what a single node, a distributed node, branch,

and loop are.

Chapter 2.3

Explain the differences between a series and parallel

connection.

Chapter 2.3

Introduce the following concepts:


All current entering a node must leave the node.
The voltage drop across branches that share the same two
nodes are equal.
The sum of all voltage drops in a loop are equal to zero.
Nodal voltage and voltage drop.

Nodes
Nodes are the region

where connections are


made between two or
more components.

Nodes
There are three nodes

in this circuit.
One node connects

resistor R1 to the
independent voltage
course.
Black dot with the blue

arrow pointing to it.

Two other nodes connect

the ends of several


components together.
Black dots with the red

arrows pointing to them.

Nodes
A node can be a point.
E.g., the black point

between the resistor and


the independent voltage
source

A node can be distributed

along a wire.
E.g., the blue dashed area

where there is a
connection between a) the
current source and the two
resistors and b) the current
source, the voltage source
and one of the resistors

Nodes
All current entering a

node must leave it.


Nodes can not cause

charge to appear or
disappear from the circuit
For example, in the

distribute node at the top


of the circuit, a current of
3 A is entering the node
and 2A + 1A are leaving
the node.

enter

node

leave

node

Branches
Branches are single

elements in a circuit
such as a voltage
source or resistor,
located between two
nodes.
This circuit has four

branches:

1 independent current

source
1 independent voltage
source
2 resistors

Series Connections
If the two branches

are connected by a
node and they carry
the same current, they
are in series.
The resistor and

independent voltage
source are in series.

Parallel Connection
A set of components

that share two nodes


are in parallel.
There are three

combinations of
components that are in
parallel in this circuit,
which share the two
distributed nodes.

The 3A current source


The combination of

resistor R1 and voltage


source
and resistor R2.

Parallel Connection
The voltage drop across

the components that are


in parallel are in parallel is
the same, but the current
flowing through each of
the sets of components
may not be.

+
Vc
-

The voltage drop across R2

is 5V.
The voltage drop across R1
and the voltage source is
6V 1V = 5V.
Therefore, the voltage drop
across the 3A current
source must be Vc = 5V.

Node Voltage
Node voltage is the

measurement of the
voltage at a node with
respect to ground.
This concept is used in

nodal analysis, which


will be presented in
Week 3 .

Voltage Drop
Voltage drop is the

voltage across one or


more components in a
branch.
The voltage drop is the

difference in node
voltages at the two
extremes of the series of
components.
The voltage drop across
a resistor is calculated
using Ohms Law.

Loops
Loops are closed

paths through a circuit


This circuit has three

loops.

Loops
The sum of voltage

drops around a loop is


equal to zero.

v0
loop

This concepts is applied

in mesh analysis, which


will also be presented
during Week 3.

Summary
The identification of the nodes, branches, and loops in a

circuit is an important step in circuit analysis.


Series connections occur when only two components
share one node.

The current flowing through one component will then flow

through the second.

Parallel connections occur when components share the

same set of nodes.


Node voltage is the measurement of the voltage at a node
with respect to ground while a voltage drop is the
difference in the voltage across a component.
The voltage dropped across a resistor is calculated using

Ohms Law.

Wye Delta Transformations


Also known as T- transformations

Objective of Lecture
Describe the equations that relate the resistances in a

Wye (Y) and Delta () resistor network.


Wye networks are some times called T networks and

Delta networks are occasionally called networks.


Chapter 2.7 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Describe a bridge circuit in terms of wye and delta

subcircuits.

Wye and Delta Networks


3 terminal arrangements commonly used in power

systems

Wye (Y)

Delta ()

T and
Drawn as a 4 terminal

arrangement of
components.

T and
2 of the terminals are

connects at one node.


The node is a
distributed node in the
case of the network.

To transform a Delta into a Wye

To transform a Wye into a Delta

Simplification
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R, then Ra = Rb =Rc = 3R
If Ra = Rb = Rc = R, then R1 = R2 = R3 = R/3

Uses
Distribution of 3 phase power
Distribution of power in stators and windings in

motors/generators.
Wye windings provide better torque at low rpm and

delta windings generates better torque at high rpm.

Bridge Circuits
Measurement of the voltage

VCD is used in sensing and fullwave rectifier circuits.


If RA = RB = RC = RD, VCD = 0V
In sensing circuits, the
resistance of one resistor
(usually RD) is proportional to
some parameter
temperature, pressure, light,
etc. , then VCD becomes a
function of that same parameter.

Bridge Circuits (cont)


Back-to-back Wye networks

Bridge Circuit (cont)


Or two Delta networks

where Rc1 = Rc2 =


.

Bridge Circuits (cont)


Alternatively, the

bridge circuit can


be constructed from
one Delta and one
Wye network where
Rc =

Bridge Circuits (cont)


Original circuit redrawn.
VCD = VC VD
If RA = RB = RC = R and RD = R - R

VC R RD R VT

VD RD RD R VT

+
VC

VT

VCD VC VD

VCD R RD ( RD R ) VT
VCD 1 / 1 R R VT

VD

Summary
There is a conversion between the resistances used in

wye and delta resistor networks.


Bridge circuits can be considered to be a combination
of wye-wye, delta-delta, or delta-wye circuits.
Voltage across a bridge can be related to the change in

the resistance of one resistor if the resistance of the


other three resistors is constant.

Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now

be applied to circuit analysis.


Two techniques will be presented in this chapter:
Nodal analysis, which is based on Kichhoff current law (KCL)
Mesh analysis, which is based on Kichhoff voltage law (KVL)

Any linear circuit can be analyzed using these two

techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)

Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the

mesh currents as the circuit variables.


A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it

Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents


Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to

circuits that can be rendered planar.


A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.

Planar vs Nonpalanar

The figure on the left is a nonplanar


circuit: The branch with the 13
resistor prevents the circuit from being
drawn without crossing branches

The figure on the right is a planar


circuit: It can be redrawn to avoid
crossing branches

Mesh Analysis Steps


Mesh analysis follows these steps:
1.Assign mesh currents i1,i2,in to the n meshes
2.Apply KVL to each of the n mesh currents.
3.Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get

the mesh currents

Mesh Analysis Example

The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0

R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources


The presence of a current source makes the mesh analysis

simpler in that it reduces the number of equations.


If the current source is located on only one mesh, the current
for that mesh is defined by the source.
For example:

Here, the current i2 is equal to -2A

Between Two Meshes


Another case to consider is if the source exists

between two meshes.


In this case, we create a supermesh by excluding the
current source and any elements connected in series
with it.

Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a

supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.

Creating a Supermesh

In this example, a 6A current course is shared between

mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.

Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh

20 6i1 10i2 4i2 0 or 6i1 14i2 20


We next apply KCL to the node in the branch where the two meshes

intersect.
i2 i1 6

Solving these two equations we get:

i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL

Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at

the voltages at the nodes of the circuit, the number of simultaneous


equations to solve for can be reduced.
Given a circuit with n nodes, without voltage sources, the nodal analysis
is accomplished via three steps:
1.
2.
3.

Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,v2,vn to the


remaining n-1 nodes, voltages are relative to the reference node.
Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohms law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages
Solve the resulting n-1 simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.

The reference, or datum, node is commonly referred to as the ground

since its voltage is by default zero.

Applying Nodal Analysis


Lets apply nodal analysis to this circuit to see

how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2

At node 2

I 2 i2 i3

Apply Nodal Analysis II


We can now use OHMs law to express the unknown currents i1,i2, and i3

in terms of node voltages.


In doing so, keep in mind that current flows from high potential to low
From this we get:
v1 0
or i1 G1v1
R1
v v
i2 1 2 or i2 G2 v1 v2
R2
v 0
i3 2
or i3 G3v2
R3
i1

v1 v1 v2

R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3

I1 I 2

Substituting
back into the
node
equations

The last step is to solve the system of equations

or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2

Including voltage sources


Depending on what nodes the

source is connected to, the


approach varies
Between the reference node and a
non-reference mode:
Set the voltage at the non-reference

node to the voltage of the source


In the example circuit v1=10V

Between two non-reference

nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.

Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or

independent) connected between two non-reference nodes and any


elements connected in parallel with it.
Why?
Nodal analysis requires applying KCL
The current through the voltage source cannot be known in advance (Ohms

law does not apply)


By lumping the nodes together, the current balance can still be described

In the example circuit node 2 and 3 form a supernode


The current balance would be:
Or this can be expressed as:

i1 i4 i2 i3

v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0

2
4
8
6

Analysis with a supernode


In order to apply KVL to the supernode in

the example, the circuit is redrawn as


shown.
Going around this loop in the clockwise
direction gives:
v2 5 v3 0 v2 v3 5
Note the following properties of a

supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides

a constraint equation needed to solve for the


node voltages
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL
and KVL

Nodal Analysis by Inspection


There is a faster way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit

by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21

G12
G22

GN 1 GN 2

G1N
G2 N



GNN

v1

v2

vN

i1
i
2


iN

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


Each diagonal term on the conductance matrix is the

sum of conductances connected to the node indicated


by the matrix index
The off diagonal terms, Gjk are the negative of the sum
of all conductances connected between nodes j and k
with jk.

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


The unknown voltages are denoted as vk
The sum of all independent current sources directly

connected to node k are denoted as ik. Current


entering the node are treated as positive and vice
versa.
This matrix equation can be solved for the unknown
values of the nodal voltages.

Mesh Analysis by Inspection


There is a similarly fast way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by

mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21

R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2


R
R

R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12

Mesh Analysis by Inspection II


The off diagonal terms, Rjk are the negative of the sum of all

resistances in common with meshes j and k with jk.


The unknown mesh currents in the clockwise direction are
denoted as ik
The sum taken clockwise of all voltage sources in mesh k are
denoted as vk. Voltage rises are treated as positive.
This matrix equation can be solved for the values of the
unknown mesh currents.

Selecting an Appropriate Approach


In principle both the nodal analysis and mesh

analysis are useful for any given circuit.


What then determines if one is going to be more
efficient for solving a circuit problem?
There are two factors that dictate the best choice:
The nature of the particular network is the first factor
The second factor is the information required

Mesh analysis when


If the network contains:
Many series connected elements
Voltage sources
Supermeshes
A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes

If branch or mesh currents are what is being solved for.


Mesh analysis is the only suitable analysis for transistor

circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.

Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes

If node voltages are what are being solved for


Non-planar circuits can only be solved using nodal analysis
This format is easier to solve by computer

Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors

are neither parallel nor series


Consider the bridge circuit shown
here
This circuit can be simplified to a
three-terminal equivalent

Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be

interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two

topologies often makes the


solution of a circuit easier

Wye-Delta Transformations III


The superimposed wye and

delta circuits shown here will


used for reference
The delta consists of the
outer resistors, labeled a,b,
and c
The wye network are the
inside resistors, labeled 1,2,
and 3

Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye

transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc

78

Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta

transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3

Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now

be applied to circuit analysis.


Two techniques will be presented in this chapter:
Nodal analysis, which is based on Kichhoff current law (KCL)
Mesh analysis, which is based on Kichhoff voltage law (KVL)

Any linear circuit can be analyzed using these two

techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)

Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the

mesh currents as the circuit variables.


A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it

Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents


Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to

circuits that can be rendered planar.


A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.

81

Planar vs Nonpalanar

The figure on the left is a nonplanar


circuit: The branch with the 13
resistor prevents the circuit from being
drawn without crossing branches

The figure on the right is a planar


circuit: It can be redrawn to avoid
crossing branches

Mesh Analysis Steps


Mesh analysis follows these steps:
1.Assign mesh currents i1,i2,in to the n meshes
2.Apply KVL to each of the n mesh currents.
3.Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get

the mesh currents

83

Mesh Analysis Example

The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0

R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2

84

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources


The presence of a current source makes the mesh analysis

simpler in that it reduces the number of equations.


If the current source is located on only one mesh, the current
for that mesh is defined by the source.
For example:

Here, the current i2 is equal to -2A

Between Two Meshes


Another case to consider is if the source exists

between two meshes.


In this case, we create a supermesh by excluding the
current source and any elements connected in series
with it.

Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a

supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.

87

Creating a Supermesh

In this example, a 6A current course is shared between

mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.

Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh

20 6i1 10i2 4i2 0 or 6i1 14i2 20


We next apply KCL to the node in the branch where the two meshes

intersect.
i2 i1 6

Solving these two equations we get:

i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL

Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at

the voltages at the nodes of the circuit, the number of simultaneous


equations to solve for can be reduced.
Given a circuit with n nodes, without voltage sources, the nodal analysis
is accomplished via three steps:
1.
2.
3.

Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,v2,vn to the


remaining n-1 nodes, voltages are relative to the reference node.
Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohms law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages
Solve the resulting n-1 simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.

The reference, or datum, node is commonly referred to as the ground

since its voltage is by default zero.

90

Applying Nodal Analysis


Lets apply nodal analysis to this circuit to see

how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2

At node 2

I 2 i2 i3

Apply Nodal Analysis II


We can now use OHMs law to express the unknown currents i1,i2, and i3

in terms of node voltages.


In doing so, keep in mind that current flows from high potential to low
From this we get:
v1 0
or i1 G1v1
R1
v v
i2 1 2 or i2 G2 v1 v2
R2
v 0
i3 2
or i3 G3v2
R3
i1

v1 v1 v2

R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3

I1 I 2

Substituting
back into the
node
equations

The last step is to solve the system of equations

or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2

92

Including voltage sources


Depending on what nodes the

source is connected to, the


approach varies
Between the reference node and a
non-reference mode:
Set the voltage at the non-reference

node to the voltage of the source


In the example circuit v1=10V

Between two non-reference

nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.

Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or

independent) connected between two non-reference nodes and any


elements connected in parallel with it.
Why?
Nodal analysis requires applying KCL
The current through the voltage source cannot be known in advance (Ohms

law does not apply)


By lumping the nodes together, the current balance can still be described

In the example circuit node 2 and 3 form a supernode


The current balance would be:
Or this can be expressed as:

i1 i4 i2 i3

v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0

2
4
8
6

94

Analysis with a supernode


In order to apply KVL to the supernode in

the example, the circuit is redrawn as


shown.
Going around this loop in the clockwise
direction gives:
v2 5 v3 0 v2 v3 5
Note the following properties of a

supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides

a constraint equation needed to solve for the


node voltages
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL
and KVL

Nodal Analysis by Inspection


There is a faster way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit

by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21

G12
G22

GN 1 GN 2

G1N
G2 N



GNN

v1

v2

vN

i1
i
2


iN

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


Each diagonal term on the conductance matrix is the

sum of conductances connected to the node indicated


by the matrix index
The off diagonal terms, Gjk are the negative of the sum
of all conductances connected between nodes j and k
with jk.

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


The unknown voltages are denoted as vk
The sum of all independent current sources directly

connected to node k are denoted as ik. Current


entering the node are treated as positive and vice
versa.
This matrix equation can be solved for the unknown
values of the nodal voltages.

Mesh Analysis by Inspection


There is a similarly fast way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by

mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21

R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2


R
R

R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12

Mesh Analysis by Inspection II


The off diagonal terms, Rjk are the negative of the sum of all

resistances in common with meshes j and k with jk.


The unknown mesh currents in the clockwise direction are
denoted as ik
The sum taken clockwise of all voltage sources in mesh k are
denoted as vk. Voltage rises are treated as positive.
This matrix equation can be solved for the values of the
unknown mesh currents.

Selecting an Appropriate Approach


In principle both the nodal analysis and mesh

analysis are useful for any given circuit.


What then determines if one is going to be more
efficient for solving a circuit problem?
There are two factors that dictate the best choice:
The nature of the particular network is the first factor
The second factor is the information required

Mesh analysis when


If the network contains:
Many series connected elements
Voltage sources
Supermeshes
A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes

If branch or mesh currents are what is being solved for.


Mesh analysis is the only suitable analysis for transistor

circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.

Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes

If node voltages are what are being solved for


Non-planar circuits can only be solved using nodal analysis
This format is easier to solve by computer

03

Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors

are neither parallel nor series


Consider the bridge circuit shown
here
This circuit can be simplified to a
three-terminal equivalent

04

Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be

interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two

topologies often makes the


solution of a circuit easier

05

Wye-Delta Transformations III


The superimposed wye and

delta circuits shown here will


used for reference
The delta consists of the
outer resistors, labeled a,b,
and c
The wye network are the
inside resistors, labeled 1,2,
and 3

06

Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye

transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc

07

Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta

transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3

Overview
The concept of superposition will be introduced.
Source transformation will also be covered.
Thevenin and Nortons theorems will be covered.
Examples of applications for these concepts will be

presented.

Linearity
Linearity in a circuit means that as current is changed,

the voltage changes proportionally


It also requires that the response of a circuit to a sum
of sources will be the sum of the individual responses
from each source separately
A resistor satisfies both of these criteria

Superposition
If there are two or more independent sources there

are two ways to solve for the circuit parameters:


Nodal or mesh analysis
Use superposition

The superposition principle states that the voltage

across (or current through) an element in a linear


circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

Applying Superposition
Using superposition means applying one independent source

at a time
Dependent sources are left alone
The steps are:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

12

13

By CDR:

14

THEN:

Source Transformation
Much like the delta-wye transformation, it is

possible to transform a source from one form to


another
This can be useful for simplifying circuits
The principle behind all of these transformations is
equivalence

17

Source Transformation II
A source transformation is the process of replacing

a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a


current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or
vice versa.

Terminal Equivalency
These transformations work because the two

sources have equivalent behavior at their


terminals
If the sources are turned off the resistance at the
terminals are both R
If the terminals are short circuited, the currents
need to be the same
From this we get the following requirement:
vs
vs is R or is
R

19

Example 1

By KVL:

Example 1, (contd)

By CDR:

21

Dependent Sources
Source transformation also applies to dependent

sources
But, the dependent variable must be handled
carefully
The same relationship between the voltage and
current holds here:

22

Example 2

Source transformation rules


Note that the arrow of the current source is directed

towards the positive terminal of the voltage source


Source transformation is not possible when R=0 for an
ideal voltage source
For a realistic source, R0
For an ideal current source, R= also prevents the
use of source transformation

Thevenins Theorem
In many circuits, one element will be variable
An example of this is mains power; many different

appliances may be plugged into the outlet, each


presenting a different resistance
This variable element is called the load
Ordinarily one would have to reanalyze the circuit for
each change in the load

25

Thevenins Theorem II
Thevenins theorem states that

a linear two terminal circuit may


be replaced with a voltage
source and resistor
The voltage sources value is
equal to the open circuit voltage
at the terminals
The resistance is equal to the
resistance measured at the
terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

26

Thevenins Theorem III


There are two cases to consider when finding the

equivalent resistance
Case 1: If there are no dependent sources, then
the resistance may be found by simply turning off
all the sources

27

Thevenins Theorem IV
Case 2: If there are dependent

sources, we still turn off all the


independent sources.
Now apply a voltage v0 (or current
i0)to the terminals and determine
the current i0 (voltage v0).

Thevenins Theorem V
Thevenins theorem is very powerful in circuit analysis.
It allows one to simplify a circuit
A large circuit may be replaced by a single

independent voltage source and a single resistor.


The equivalent circuit behaves externally exactly the
same as the original circuit.

29

Example

30

Example, contd

Example

32

Example, contd

Example, contd
(1)

(2)

Then:

34

Nortons Theorem
Similar to Thevenins

theorem, Nortons theorem


states that a linear two
terminal circuit may be
replaced with an equivalent
circuit containing a resistor
and a current source
The Norton resistance will
be exactly the same as the
Thevenin

35

Nortons Theorem II
The Norton current IN is found by short circuiting the

circuits terminals and measuring the resulting current

I N I sc

Norton vs. Thevenin


These two equivalent circuits can be related to each

other
One need only look at source transformation to
understand this
The Norton current and Thevein voltage are related
to each other as follows:
VTh
IN
RTh

Norton vs. Thevenin II


With VTH, IN, and (RTH=RN) related, finding the

Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that


we find:
The open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b.
The short-circuit current at terminals a and b.
The equivalent or input resistance at terminals a and
b when all independent sources are turned off.

Maximum Power Transfer


In many applications, a circuit is designed to power a

load
Among those applications there are many cases
where we wish to maximize the power transferred to
the load
Unlike an ideal source, internal resistance will restrict
the conditions where maximum power is transferred.

39

Maximum Power Transfer II


We can use the Thevenin

equivalent circuit for finding the


maximum power in a linear circuit
We will assume that the load
resistance can be varied
Looking at the equivalent circuit
with load included, the power
transferred is:

VTh
RL
RTh RL

40

Maximum Power Transfer III


For a given circuit, VTH and RTH

are fixed. By varying the load


resistance RL, the power
delivered to the load varies as
shown
You can see that as RL
approaches 0 and the power
transferred goes to zero.
In fact the maximum power
transferred is when RL=RTH

Realistic Sources
The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are

useful in understanding the behavior of realistic


sources
Ideal voltage sources have no internal resistance
Ideal current sources have infinite internal resistance
The Thevenin and Norton circuits introduce deviations
from these ideals

42

Example

For Vth:

By VDR:
By KVL:

Then:

Millmans Theorem
This is a combination of source transformation and

Thevenins and Nortons theorems.


It is used to reduce number of parallel voltage
sources to an equivalent circuit with one source.
It is easier than applying nodal or mesh analysis or
superposition.

45

Millman II
Here is an illustrated guide to the theorem

Millman III
The steps for applying the theorem are:
1.Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
2.Algebraically combine all parallel current sources and

determine the equivalent resistance.


3.Convert the resulting current source to voltage
source.

Example

Step 2.

Step 1.

Step 3.

Example (contd)

14.88

0.150

Substitution Theorem
The substitution theorem states that in a linear

network any branch may be replaced by any


combination of circuit elements which produce the
same voltage across and current through the branch.

50

Example

51

Example

Reciprocity Theorem
This applies only to single source circuits.
There are two cases:
Case 1 Voltage Sources
If the sources located in branch A causes a current I in

branch B, then moving the source to branch B will


cause a current I in branch A

53

Reciprocity II

Case 2 Current source


If the sources located in branch A causes a voltage

V in branch B, then moving the source to branch B


will cause a voltage V in branch A

54

Example

55

Example

56

Example

57

Example

Overview
With Ohms and Kirchhoffs law established, they may now

be applied to circuit analysis.


Two techniques will be presented in this chapter:
Nodal analysis, which is based on Kichhoff current law (KCL)
Mesh analysis, which is based on Kichhoff voltage law (KVL)

Any linear circuit can be analyzed using these two

techniques.
The analysis will result in a set of simultaneous equations
which may be solved by Cramers rule or computationally
(using MATLAB for example)

Mesh Analysis
Another general procedure for analyzing circuits is to use the

mesh currents as the circuit variables.


A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it

Mesh analysis uses KVL to find unknown currents


Mesh analysis is limited in one aspect: It can only apply to

circuits that can be rendered planar.


A planar circuit can be drawn such that there are no crossing
branches.

60

Planar vs Nonpalanar

The figure on the left is a nonplanar


circuit: The branch with the 13
resistor prevents the circuit from being
drawn without crossing branches

The figure on the right is a planar


circuit: It can be redrawn to avoid
crossing branches

Mesh Analysis Steps


Mesh analysis follows these steps:
1.Assign mesh currents i1,i2,in to the n meshes
2.Apply KVL to each of the n mesh currents.
3.Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get

the mesh currents

62

Mesh Analysis Example

The above circuit has two paths that are meshes (abefa and bcdeb)
The outer loop (abcdefa) is a loop, but not a mesh
First, mesh currents i1 and i2 are assigned to the two meshes.
Applying KVL to the meshes:
V1 R1i1 R3 i1 i2 0 R2i2 V2 R3 i2 i1 0

R1 R3 i1 R3i2 V1 R3i1 R2 R3 i2 V2

63

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources


The presence of a current source makes the mesh analysis

simpler in that it reduces the number of equations.


If the current source is located on only one mesh, the current
for that mesh is defined by the source.
For example:

Here, the current i2 is equal to -2A

Between Two Meshes


Another case to consider is if the source exists

between two meshes.


In this case, we create a supermesh by excluding the
current source and any elements connected in series
with it.

Supermesh
The two meshes must be joined together, resulting in a

supermesh.
The supermesh is constructed by merging the two meshes
and excluding the shared source and any elements in series
with it
A supermesh is required because mesh analysis uses KVL
But the voltage across a current source cannot be known in
advance.
Intersecting supermeshes in a circuit must be combined to
for a larger supermesh.

66

Creating a Supermesh

In this example, a 6A current course is shared between

mesh 1 and 2.
The supermesh is formed by merging the two meshes.
The current source and the 2 resistor in series with it
are removed.

Supermesh Example
Using the circuit from the last slide:
Apply KVL to the supermesh

20 6i1 10i2 4i2 0 or 6i1 14i2 20


We next apply KCL to the node in the branch where the two meshes

intersect.
i2 i1 6

Solving these two equations we get:

i1 3.2A i2 2.8A
Note that the supermesh required using both KVL and KCL

Nodal Analysis
If instead of focusing on the voltages of the circuit elements, one looks at

the voltages at the nodes of the circuit, the number of simultaneous


equations to solve for can be reduced.
Given a circuit with n nodes, without voltage sources, the nodal analysis
is accomplished via three steps:
1.
2.
3.

Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,v2,vn to the


remaining n-1 nodes, voltages are relative to the reference node.
Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohms law to
express the branch currents in terms of node voltages
Solve the resulting n-1 simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.

The reference, or datum, node is commonly referred to as the ground

since its voltage is by default zero.

69

Applying Nodal Analysis


Lets apply nodal analysis to this circuit to see

how it works.
This circuit has a node that is designed as
ground. We will use that as the reference
node (node 0)
The remaining two nodes are designed 1 and
2 and assigned voltages v1 and v2.
Now apply KCL to each node:
At node 1
I1 I 2 i1 i2

At node 2

I 2 i2 i3

Apply Nodal Analysis II


We can now use OHMs law to express the unknown currents i1,i2, and i3

in terms of node voltages.


In doing so, keep in mind that current flows from high potential to low
From this we get:
v1 0
or i1 G1v1
R1
v v
i2 1 2 or i2 G2 v1 v2
R2
v 0
i3 2
or i3 G3v2
R3
i1

v1 v1 v2

R1
R2
v v
v
I2 1 2 2
R2
R3

I1 I 2

Substituting
back into the
node
equations

The last step is to solve the system of equations

or
I1 I 2 G1v1 G2 v1 v2
I 2 G2 v1 v2 G3v2

71

Including voltage sources


Depending on what nodes the

source is connected to, the


approach varies
Between the reference node and a
non-reference mode:
Set the voltage at the non-reference

node to the voltage of the source


In the example circuit v1=10V

Between two non-reference

nodes
The two nodes form a supernode.

Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source (dependant or

independent) connected between two non-reference nodes and any


elements connected in parallel with it.
Why?
Nodal analysis requires applying KCL
The current through the voltage source cannot be known in advance (Ohms

law does not apply)


By lumping the nodes together, the current balance can still be described

In the example circuit node 2 and 3 form a supernode


The current balance would be:
Or this can be expressed as:

i1 i4 i2 i3

v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 0 v3 0

2
4
8
6

73

Analysis with a supernode


In order to apply KVL to the supernode in

the example, the circuit is redrawn as


shown.
Going around this loop in the clockwise
direction gives:
v2 5 v3 0 v2 v3 5
Note the following properties of a

supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides

a constraint equation needed to solve for the


node voltages
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL
and KVL

Nodal Analysis by Inspection


There is a faster way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit

by nodal analysis
It requires that all current sources within the circuit be
independent
In general, for a circuit with N nonreference nodes, the nodevoltage equations may be written as:
G11
G
21

G12
G22

GN 1 GN 2

G1N
G2 N



GNN

v1

v2

vN

i1
i
2


iN

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


Each diagonal term on the conductance matrix is the

sum of conductances connected to the node indicated


by the matrix index
The off diagonal terms, Gjk are the negative of the sum
of all conductances connected between nodes j and k
with jk.

Nodal Analysis by Inspection II


The unknown voltages are denoted as vk
The sum of all independent current sources directly

connected to node k are denoted as ik. Current


entering the node are treated as positive and vice
versa.
This matrix equation can be solved for the unknown
values of the nodal voltages.

Mesh Analysis by Inspection


There is a similarly fast way to construct a matrix for solving a circuit by

mesh analysis
It requires that all voltage sources within the circuit be independent
In general, for a circuit with N meshes, the mesh-current equations may
be written as:
R11
R
21

R1N i1 v1
R22 R2 N i2 v2


R
R

R
N2
NN i N
N1
vN
Each diagonal term on the resistance matrix is the sum of resistances in
the mesh indicated by the matrix index
R12

Mesh Analysis by Inspection II


The off diagonal terms, Rjk are the negative of the sum of all

resistances in common with meshes j and k with jk.


The unknown mesh currents in the clockwise direction are
denoted as ik
The sum taken clockwise of all voltage sources in mesh k are
denoted as vk. Voltage rises are treated as positive.
This matrix equation can be solved for the values of the
unknown mesh currents.

Selecting an Appropriate Approach


In principle both the nodal analysis and mesh

analysis are useful for any given circuit.


What then determines if one is going to be more
efficient for solving a circuit problem?
There are two factors that dictate the best choice:
The nature of the particular network is the first factor
The second factor is the information required

Mesh analysis when


If the network contains:
Many series connected elements
Voltage sources
Supermeshes
A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes

If branch or mesh currents are what is being solved for.


Mesh analysis is the only suitable analysis for transistor

circuits
It is not appropriate for operational amplifiers because there
is no direct way to obtain the voltage across an op-amp.

Nodal analysis if
If the network contains:
Many parallel connected elements
Current sources
Supernodes
Circuits with fewer nodes than meshes

If node voltages are what are being solved for


Non-planar circuits can only be solved using nodal analysis
This format is easier to solve by computer

82

Wye-Delta Transformations
There are cases where resistors

are neither parallel nor series


Consider the bridge circuit shown
here
This circuit can be simplified to a
three-terminal equivalent

83

Wye-Delta Transformations II
Two topologies can be

interchanged:
Wye (Y) or tee (T) networks
Delta () or pi () networks
Transforming between these two

topologies often makes the


solution of a circuit easier

84

Wye-Delta Transformations III


The superimposed wye and

delta circuits shown here will


used for reference
The delta consists of the
outer resistors, labeled a,b,
and c
The wye network are the
inside resistors, labeled 1,2,
and 3

85

Delta to Wye
The conversion formula for a delta to wye

transformation are:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc

86

Wye to Delta
The conversion formula for a wye to delta

transformation are:
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3

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