CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY:

FLUID MECHANICS
DURATIO
N
Week 1-2

THEME
Fluid properties
(Learning Outcome 1)
Definition of fluid
Introductory
dimensional analysis
Measures of fluid
mass and weight
Ideal gas law
Viscosity
Compressibility of
fluids
Vapour pressure
Surface tension
Solving problems

ASSIGNME
NT/
TEST/PROJ
ECT
Assignment
I
Test I

COMPLETI
ON DATE*
06/08/2010
10/09/2010

Week 3-4

Fluid statics
(Learning
Outcomes 2 )
Pressure at a point
Basic equation for
pressure field
Pressure variation
in a fluid at rest
Measurement of
pressure
Manometry
Hydrostatic force
on a plane surface
Solving problems

Assignment
I
Test I

06/08/2010
10/09/2010

Week
6

5- Flow of
fluids(Learning
Outcomes 3 )
Conservation of
mass
Conservation of
energy
Conservation of
momentum

Assignme
nt II
Test I

03/09/201
0
10/09/201
0

Week 9-10

Flow measurement
(Learning
Outcomes 5 )
Introduction
Rotameter
Venturi meter
Pitot tube
Orifice meter
Vortex flow meter

Assignment
III
Test II

01/10/2010
22/10/2010

Week
15

11- Centrifugal pumps

Assignment
(Learning
IV
Outcomes 6 )
Test III
Types of pumps
Centrifugal pump
theory
Ideal pump
Actual pump
performance
Power transmission
Types of impellers
Pump cavitation
Factors that affect
pump capacity
Multistage
centrifugal pumps
Leakproof
centrifugal pumps
Pump priming
Solving problems
5

15/10/2010
22/10/2010

Course objectives
By the end of this module students should be able to:
1. Have a clear understanding of the basic properties of fluid
2. Develop a clear understanding of pressure and its
variation throughout a fluid
3. Perform mathematical calculations for fluid at rest
4. Apply the principles of conservation of mass, momentum and
energy to fluid flow
5. Apply the basic principles of fluid flow to flow of viscous,
incompressible fluids in pipes
6. Perform flow measurements calculations
7. Design centrifugal pumps
Note: If time allows, we will do flow of compressible fluids
6

Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 1.

Butterworth Heinemann
B.R. Munson. Fundamentals of Fluid mechanics.
Wiley International Edition
James O. Wilke. Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers
Assessments
Semester Tests: 2, total 50%
Assignments: 50%
Examination
40% semester mark is required for
admission

Chapter One: Properties of fluid

1.1 What is a fluid? Consider
F
original
position

Area

Deformed
position

From engineering/scientific point of view, a fluid is defined as a

substance that deforms continuously (flow) when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude. A shearing stress (force per
unit area) is created whenever a tangential force acts on a
surface.
Fluids: Water, air, petrol, oil

1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional homogeneity and

units
Description of fluid characteristics
1. Qualitatively: Length, time, mass, temperature
2. Quantitatively; Numerical value of 1 above
Primary quantities (for qualitative description) Length, L
Mass, M
Time, T
Temperature,
Secondary quantities: Area = L2 ,
velocity = LT-1 density = ML-3
9

Dimensional homogeneity
Now consider an object initially moving at velocity Vo. A
constant acceleration force is applied. Determine the
variation of velocity and distance with time.
Vo

dV Vt Vo
a

dt
t to

Distance,
S
Expression for
acceleration

Vt

Vt Vo
t

Since to=0

Vt = Vo + at

LT-1 (LHS) = LT-1 (RHS1) + LT-1 (RHS 2)

Dimensionally homogeneous

dS
V
dt

ds
Vo at
dt

at 2
S Vo t
2

dS

(Vo at )dt

L (LHS) = (LT-1)(T) (RHS1) + (LT-2)(T2) (RHS 2)

Dimensionally homogeneous
10

Example 1.1
A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate flow,
Q, of a liquid through an orifice located inside a tank is

Q 0.61A 2 gh
11

Where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration due to

gravity and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice.
Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula

12

These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the

dimensional form

From the above result, it is clear that the equation is

dimensionally homogeneous i.e. both sides contain L3T-1
Example 1.2
The force, P, that is exerted on a spherical particle moving
slowly through a liquid is given by the equation
P = 3DV
Where is the fluid viscosity ( FL-2T), D is the particle
diameter, and V is the particle velocity. What are the
dimensions of the constant, 3? Would you classify this
equation as a general homogeneous equation? (i.e. valid in
13
any system of units)

 1.3 Measures of fluid mass and weight

1.3.1 Density
Density, , is defined as mass per unit volume. It is used to characterize
the mass of a fluid system. For liquids, it shos some slight variation with
14
temperature (see fig 1.2)

Density, kg/m

1000
990
980
970
960
950
0

20

40

60

80

100

Temperature, C

Fig.1.2 Density of water as a function of temperature.

Highest density is observed at 4 oC
1.3.2 Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by (N/m3) is
defined as the weight per unit volume and therefore
=g
15

16

17

1.5 Viscosity
The properties of density and specific weight discussed in
section 1.3 are measures of heaviness of a fluid. Another
very important property of a fluid is its viscosity. The viscosity
of a fluid is a measure of resistance to flow under applied
shear stress ,, as show in Fig. 1.3.
Consider
Moving plate, u=V
Moving
plate

Force, F
Velocity
profile

Fluid
Fixed plate

Force
Fig. 1.3 (a) Fluid in shear between
parallel plates

y
V
h

(b) The ensuing linear velocity profile

18

 Let h be the separation distance between the plate, F be

the applied force
Under these circumstances, the velocity u of the fluid to
the right is found experimentally to vary linearly from
zero at the lower plate (y=0) to V itself at the upper plate
(see fig. b), corresponding to no-slip conditions (an
experimental observation that the fluid sticks to the
solid boundaries) at each plate.
At any intermediate distance y from the lower plate, the
velocity u is given by:

y
u V
h

Eq. 1.7

Since u depends on y we can write:

du V

dy h

19

Newtonian fluids
du

dy

Experimentally determined

du
V

dy
h

Introducing proportionality
constant

Kinematic viscosity

20

oil

H2O, 15 oC

Shearing stress

H2O, 37 oC

1
Air, 15 oC

Rate of shear strain,

du
dy

Fig. 1.4 Linear variation of shearing stress with

rate of shearing strain for common fluids
21

stic
a
l
p
m
a
gh
n
i
B

Shearing stress

ar
e
Sh

g
n
i
nn
i
h
t

n
a
i
on
t
w
Ne

r
ea
h
S

ing
n
e
k
thic

Rate of shear strain

Fig. 1.5 Shear stress vs shear strain for Newtonian

and Non-Newtonian fluids
22

Variation of viscosity of liquid with temperature

ln a b ln T
D exp( B T )

or

exp(a b ln T )

Andrade Equation

Variation of viscosity of gas with temperature

T
o
To

or

CT 2

T S

Sutherland
Equation

23

Dynamic viscosity

Glycerin
Oil

Water

Air
Hydrogen
Temperature

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic viscosity of some common fluids as a

function of temperature.
24

Example 1.3
A dimensional combination of variables that is important in the
study of viscous flow through pipes is called Reynolds number,
NRe, defined as VD/, where is the fluid density, V the mean
fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter and the fluid viscosity. A
Newtonian fluid having viscosity of 0.38 N.s/m 2 and specific
gravity of 0.91 flow through a 25-mm-diametre pipe with a
velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the value of NRe. Show how NRe ,
varies with temperature.

25

Solution
N Re

VD 0.91x1000 kg / m 3 2.6 m / s 25 x10 3 m

0.38 N .s / m 2
= 156 (kg.m.s-2)/N

But 1 N= 1 kg.m.s-2
Therefore

N Re

NRe= 156

VD

or
D exp( B / T )

N Re

VD

exp(a b ln T )

For variation of NRe with temperature26

Example 1.4
The velocity distribution for flow of a Newtonian fluid (see figure)
between two wide, parallel plates is given by the equation:

3
y
u V 1
2
h
Where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04
lb.s/ft2. When V=2 ft/s and h=0.2 in. Determine: (a) the shearing
stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the shearing stress
acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the
centreline (mid plane)
2

27

Solution
du

dy

Newtonian fluid

du 3
2y
V 0 2
dy 2
h

3 Vy

2 h2

du
3V
3V
2 h
dy
h
h

bottom
wall

3
y
u V 1
2
h

Taking first derivative

Now along the bottom wall, y= -h

3V 0.04 lb.s / ft 2 3 2 ft / s

0.2 in.1 ft / 12 in.

h

du
3V
2 0 0
dy
h

mid plane

Given
expression

3V

0
h

Calculation of shearing
stress at the bottom
Calculation of shearing
stress mid plane
28

1.6 Compressibility of fluids

(a) Bulk modulus: When pressure is
applied to a fluid, its volume (also density)
changes i.e. it is compressed. Bulk
modulus is a property that is used to
characterise compressibility. It is defined
mathematically
dp
Ev
d /

dp is the differential pressure

needed to create a differential
change in volume d of a
volume .
29

Noting that = m/ , then

dp
Ev

d (m / ) /( m / )

E v d
d /

dp
dp
d

d
d d
m( 2 )
2

m/

-Liquids

are generally incompressible

i.e Ev >>large
-Gases are compressible.

(b) Compression and Expansion of gases

P
cons tan t

When gases expand/compress

at constant temperature
30

dP
cons tan t
d

Taking derivative

But, we know

dP E v

Ev
P

cons tan t

P
cons tan t
k

Cp
k
Cv

From section 1.6a

Ev= P

Isothermal
process

Isentropic process:
Frictionless and no heat
exchange with surrounding
31

dp (const.)k k 1 d

Taking derivative

dp

(const.)k k 1
d

P
kP
k 1
k

dp E v kP

E v kP

(isentropic process)

32

Example:
A cubic foot of He at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi is
compressed isentropically to 0.5 ft3. What is the final pressure?
Solution:
For isentropic compression, we have;

Pf

Pf Pi
i

Pi
k
k
i
f

We know that for fixed mass, a decrease of volume by a factor

of 0.5 results in an increase in density by a factor of 2.
Therefore;

2
Pf 14.7
1

1.66

Pf = 46.5 psi.

k=1.66
33

1.7 Surface tension

What happens when steel needle is gently placed on
water? It floats??
Why do small droplets of mercury form into spheres
when placed on a smooth surface? - because the
cohesive forces in the surface tend to hold all the
molecules together in a compact shape
Walking on water: Small insects such as the water
strider can walk on water because their weight is not
enough to penetrate the surface
Don't touch the tent!
Common tent materials are somewhat rainproof in that
the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the
finely woven material. But if you touch the tent material
with your finger, you break the surface tension and the
rain will drip through.
34

 Soaps and detergents

help the cleaning of clothes by lowering the surface
tension of the water so that it more readily soaks into
pores and soiled areas.
Washing with cold water
The major reason for using hot water for washing is that
its surface tension is lower and it is a better wetting
agent. But if the detergent lowers the surface tension,
the heating may be unneccessary
Define Surface tension ( = the intensity of the molecular
attraction per unit length along any line in the surface) as the
tendency of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic membrane.
Remember that this conceptual analogy is only useful to explain
the phenomenon described above, say, why steel needle floats on
35
water

Question:
How will the shape of droplets of liquid placed gently on a
surface vary with the size of the droplet?
Answer
For the small droplets such as the
first two on the left hand side, the
droplets adapt a shape that is almost
perfectly spherical, because in this
configuration, there is the least
surface area for a given volume

For larger droplets, the shape becomes somewhat flatter

because of the increasingly important gravitational effects,
which is roughly proportional to r3, where r is the
approximate droplet radius, whereas the surface area is
proportional to only r2
36

Capillary action

rise of column for a liquid

that wets the surface
such as water
Adhesion>> cohesion

depression of column for

nonwetting liquid such as
mercury.
Adhesion<<cohesion
37

Free body diagram: Force balance

To determine h, we perform force

balance. At equilibrium the weight of
water in the column must balance the
surface tension i.e.

r 2 h 2r ( cos )
2 cos
h
r

Making h the subject

38

Example
Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a
column of liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass tubing
is required so that the rise of water at 200o C in a tube due to capillary
action is less than 1.00 mm?
Solution
h

2 cos
r

2 cos
r
h

so that
Property of water at 20oC is; = 0.0728 N/m,
= 9.789 kN/m3

2 * 0.0728 * cos 0
r
0.0149
3
3
9.789 * 10 * 1.0 * 10

Thus the minimum diameter d (=2r) = 0.0298 m

= 29.8 mm.
39

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

2.1 Pressure at a Point
Define Pressure as the normal force per unit area at a
given point acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of
interest
Pascals Law: The pressure at a point in a static fluid is
equal in all directions: To prove this, lets consider a fluid
element in the form of a triangular wedge
Z

Ps xs
s

Pz xz

y
X

xyz

Pz xy

40

Assumptions
Fluid at rest
Zero shearing
Fluid moves as rigid body: no relative motion between
adjacent elements
Applying Newtons second Law: F=ma
Y-direction
Sum of forces in the y direction= (pressure)*(small area normal
to pressure)- (force opposing the pressure in the y direction)=
(volume of the element)*(density of the fluid)*acceleration)

xyz
Fy Py xz Ps xs sin 2 a y
41

Z-direction
Sum of forces in the z direction= (pressure)*(small area
normal to pressure)- (force opposing the pressure in the z
direction) (weight of the element) = (volume of the
element)*(density of the fluid)*acceleration)

xyz
xyz
Fz Pz xy Ps xs cos 2 2 a z
It can easily be shown that
z s sin
y s cos
Therefore
Py Ps a y

y
2

Z-direction
Y-direction

z
Pz Ps ( a z )
2
42

Taking limits

y 0, z 0, x 0
Py = Ps

and Pz = Ps

Example
A hydraulic jack consists of an assembly of given dimensions. A
load of 20 kN (P2) must be supported by the jack. What should
be the force applied?
Hydraulic jacks use the
principle of transmission of
pressure.
43

Area A2 is given by
(0.05) 2
A2
0.001963 m 2
5

Pressure P2 is the weight to be lifted per unit area

20 * 1000
P2
10187838 N / m 2
0.001963

Pressure P2 must balance P1 i.e. transmission of pressure

(0.015) 2
Force applied 10187838 * *
1800 N
4
44

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Hydrostatic law
The rate of increase of pressure in the vertically downward
direction, at a point in a static fluid, must equal the local
specific weight of the fluid.
Proof of the above statements
Surface

z
P

P
z
z

Sum of forces acting

upwards due to pressure

P P a P a P a
Force acting downwards
due to weight

weight g (z a)
45

For equilibrium upward force equals downward force

P a g (z a )

P g z
P
g
z

Incompressible fluids
P
g
z

P g z

For liquids or gases at rest

the pressure gradient in the
vertical direction

P
g
z
With incompressible fluids
(liquids), density is constant

P Po gz
46

 P gz Po

Point O being the surface

of water and therefore Po
is atmospheric pressure

P gz

If we measure pressure
relative to atmospheric
pressure (gauge
pressure, then Po~0

Example
Calculate the pressure (gauge) for a column of
1. 0.2 m water
2. 0.2 gasoline (specific gravity=0.75)
3. 0.2m Mercury (specific gravity=13.6)
47

Solution
gz = 1000*9.81*0.2 = 1962 N/m 2
gz = 0.75*1000*9.81*0.2 = 1472 N/m2
gz = 13.6*1000*9.81*0.2 = 26683 N/m 2
Compressible Fluids
Recall, P

P
RT

P
P

*g
z RT

RT

Gas law eq. R J/kgK

P2

P
g 2

P
RT z1

Integrating

P2
g
z 2 z1
ln

P1 RT

Isothermal,
T=const.

P1

48

 g z 2 z1
P2 P1 exp

RT

Pressure variation with z in the

vertical downward direction

g z 2 z1
P2 P1 exp

RT

Pressure variation with z in the

vertical upward direction

Manometry: Measurement of Pressure

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

49

1. Barometer
-Used for measuring atmospheric
pressure
h

-Pressure balance

Patm= h + Pvapor (see vacuum)

-It implies that the column of mercury will
rise till the force due to atm. pressure
balances the weight in the column plus the
force due to the vapor pressure (develops
in the space above the column)
-Since Pvapor << small, Patm. ~ h
50

2. Piezometer Tube Manometer

-The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to
the top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below.
-As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative
to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only
when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small
or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
Pressure at A= Pressure due to column of liquid above A

PA = h1 + Patm (assumed zero for gauge

pressure.)
Pressure at B= Pressure due to column of
liquid above b
PA = h2 + Patm (assumed zero
for gauge
51
pressure.)

3. U- Tube Manometer
Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with
the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid
called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a
mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able
to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.
-Pressure in a continuous static
fluid is the same at any horizontal
level so

-For the left hand arm

52

For the right hand arm

As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract Patm giving

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in
comparison to the density of the manometric fluid. In this case the term gh1
can be neglected, and the gauge pressure give by

53

4. Differential U-Tube Manometer

-If the "U"-tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two points
the pressure difference between these two points can be measured

I-f the manometer is arranged as

in the figure , then
D

Giving the pressure difference

if the fluid whose pressure difference
is being measured is a gas; man >>, thus
54

5. Tilted (or inclined) Manometer

-If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm provides a
convenient way of obtaining a larger (more easily read) movement of the
manometer. The above arrangement with a tilted arm is shown in the figure
below
The pressure difference is still
given by the height change of
the manometric fluid but by
placing the scale along the line
of the tilted arm and taking this
reading large movements will
be observed. The pressure
difference is then given by

Where x is the reading along the scale

above the datum
-The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a
55 of the
greater inclination of the manometer arm, alternatively the density
manometric fluid may be changed

6. Choice Of Manometer
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no
burrs must be present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow
causing local pressure variations to affect the measurement.
Some disadvantages of manometers:
Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying
pressures - no use at all for fluctuating pressures;
For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the h value. This may be avoided by using
a tube with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the
manometer than the other;
It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a
different manometric fluid may be required - alternatively a
sloping manometer may be employed; It cannot be used for very
large pressures unless several manometers are connected in
series;
56
For very accurate work the temperature and relationship

Example of a Piezometer

What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be

measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m? And if the liquid
had a relative density of 8.5 what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure
Solution
gauge pressure p = gh
= water x relative density
The maximum measurable pressure is when the tube is
completely full (h=1.5m). Any higher and the tube will
overflow.
p = (0.85 x 103) x 9.81 x 1.5
p = 12 508 N/m2 (or Pa)

57

An example of the U-Tube manometer

Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure of fluid density = 700
kg/m3, and the manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:
(a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
(b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?
Solution

PB = PC
PB = PA + gh1
PB = PAtm + man gh2
We are measuring gauge pressure so
Patm = 0
PA = man gh2 - gh1

a) PA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x 0.9 - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4

= 117 327 N, 117.3 kN (1.17 bar)
b) PA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x (-0.1) - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4
= -16 088.4 N, -16 kN (-0.16 bar)
The negative sign indicates that the pressure is
below atmospheric

58

Example of the u-tube for pressure difference measurement

In the figure below two pipes containing the same fluid of density = 990 kg/m 3
are connected using a u-tube manometer. What is the pressure between the
two pipes if the manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Solution

PC = P D
PC = PA + g ha
PD = PB + g (hb - h) + man g h
PA - PB = g (hb - ha) + hg( man - )
= 990 x9.81x(0.75-1.5) + 0.5x9.81 x(13.60.99) x 103
= -7284 + 61852
= 54 568 N/m2 (or Pa or590.55 bar)

Example of an inclined manometer.

An inclined tube manometer consists of a vertical cylinder 35mm diameter. At the
bottom of this is connected a tube 5mm in diameter inclined upward at an angle of 15
to the horizontal, the top of this tube is connected to an air duct. The vertical cylinder
is open to the air and the manometric fluid has relative density 0.785.
Determine the pressure in the air duct if the manometric fluid moved 50mm along the
inclined tube.
What is the error if the movement of the fluid in the vertical cylinder is ignored?
Solution

60

for a manometer where man >> .

where
z2 = x sin q, and A1 z1 = a2 x
z1 = x (d/D)2
where x is the reading on the manometer scale.
p1 is atmospheric i.e. p1 = 0
And x = -50mm = -0.05m

61

If the movement in the large cylinder is ignored the term (d/D)2 will disappear

So the error induced by this assumption is

62

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Basic Concepts and Naming
Pressure variation with depth

Pressure = h
= spec gravity of water
h = depth of water
C = Center of Mass of Gate
CP = Center of Pressure on Gate
Fr = Resultant Force acts at CP

63

Now consider an open tank containing fluid as shown

below:
Free surface P=Pm

Specific weight=
h
FR
P

For fluids at rest, Force acting

must be perpendicular to the
surface since there is no
shearing stress.
As already mentioned,
pressure varies linearly as
fluid depth i.e.
P=h

For a horizontal surface such as shown above, resultant force FR= PA,
where A is the x-sectional area. In terms of fluid depth we have
FR= h A
64

For more general case in which a submerged plane surface is

inclined as illustrated below, the determination of Fr is painstaking.
Now, let the surface lie along the plane that intersects point O at the free
surface
Force acting on a small area
A at depth h is given by
O
F= h A
h

The sum of these forces over

the entire area gives the
resultant force i.e.

Fr h A y sin A
A

Where h=y sin

Fr sin y A
A

Since and are 65

const.

The integral appearing on the RHS is the First Moment of Area

wrt x-axis, hence

y A y c A

FR = A YC sin
or FR = A Hc
O

Where Hc is the vertical

distance from the fluid
surface to the centroid of
the area.
As shown The Center of
Pressure Yr lies below
the centroid - since
pressure increases with
depth. To determine Yr,
we need second moment
of Area
66

Fr Yr y F sin y A
2

But we know

Fr AYc sin

Moment of resultant force=moment of

distributed pressure.
O

Yr

2
y
A
A

Yc A

The numerator of the above

Eq. is the second moment of
the area i.e. Ix.

Ix
Yr
Yc A

67

I x I xc AY

Ixc = second moment of the

area wrt an axis passing
through the centroid and
parallel to x-axis.

2
c

Parallel axis theorem (review solid

mechanisms)

Indicates that resultant force does not pass

through the centroid.

I xc
Yr
Yc
Yc A

Note: First term RHS is very small compared to

the second term.

Similarly, the x-coordinate, Xr, for the resultant force can be

determined as follows:

Fr X r x F sin xy A
A

Xr

xyA
A

Yc A

I xy
Yc A

Xr

I xyc
Yc A

Xc
68

Parallel axis
theorem

Example
What is the Magnitude and Location of the
Resultant force of water on the door?

W = 62.4 lbs/ft3
Water Depth = 6 feet
Door Height = 4 feet
Door Width = 3 feet

69

Solution
Important variables:
Xc = 1.5

Magnitude of Resultant
Force:

A = 4 x 3 = 12

F R = W A HC

Ixc = (1/12)bh3

FR = 62.4 x 12 x 4 = 2995.2 lbs

HC and Yc = 4

= (1/12)x3x43 = 16 ft4

Location of Force:
YR = (Ixc / YcA) + Yc
YR = (16 / 4x12) + 4 = 4.333 ft
down
XR = Xc (symmetry) = 1.5 ft from
the corner of the door
70

Example
The 4-m-diameter circular gate shown below is located in the inclined
wall of a large reservoir containing water ( =9.80 kN/m3). The gate is
mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water depth of
10 m above the shaft determine the magnitude and location of the
resultant force exerted on the gate by the water.

10 m

c
yr

FR

shaft

71

Solution
To determine the magnitude of the force on
water we apply;
FR = A Hc
= 9.80*10*(3.13*22)
= 1230x103 N= 1.23 MN

To locate the centre of resultant

force we recall

Centre of
pressure

Xr

I xyc
Yc A

Xc

I xc
Yr
Yc
Yc A
72

Because of symmetry, the centre of pressure must lie

along the diameter A-A and therefore Xr =0
For circular shape:

I xc
Yr
Yc
Yc A

I xc

R 4

4
( / 4)(2) 2
10
Yr

(10 / sin 60 0 )( * 2 2 ) sin 60 0

Yc= 0.0866 m + 11.55 m = 11.6 m

Remember sin 60o= 10/yc

73

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

Consider forces acting on curved surface AB
The element
of fluid ABC is
equilibrium
(as the fluid is
at rest).

If the surface is curved the forces on each element of the surface will not be
parallel and must be combined using some vectorial method.
It is most straightforward to calculate the horizontal and vertical components and
combine these to obtain the resultant force and its direction. (This can also be
done for all three dimensions, but here we will only look at one vertical plane).
In the diagram above the liquid is resting on top of a curved base AB.
74

Horizontal forces
Considering the horizontal forces, none can act on CB as there
are no shear forces in a static fluid so the forces would act on
the faces AC and AB as shown below.

We can see that the horizontal force on AC, must equal

and be in the opposite direction to the resultant force on
the curved surface( AC is the projection of the curved
surface AB onto a vertical plane)
75

The resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface

is:
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the curved surface
onto a vertical plane (acts through the centre of pressure of the
projection of the curved surface onto an vertical plane).
Thus we can use the pressure diagram method to calculate the
position and magnitude of the resultant horizontal force on a
two dimensional curved surface
Vertical forces
The diagram below shows the vertical forces which act
on the element of fluid above the curved surface

76

-There are no shear force on the

vertical edges, so the vertical
component can only be due to the
weight of the fluid.
-The resultant vertical force of a fluid
above a curved surface is:
-RV = Weight of fluid directly above
the curved surface.
and it will act vertically downward
through the centre of gravity of the
mass of fluid.

77

Resultant force
The overall resultant force is found by combining the vertical
and horizontal components vectorialy,

RH

RV

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal is

78

Example
A 4 m long curved gate is located in the side of a reservior
containing water as shown below. Determine the magnitude of
the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the
water on the gate. Determine also the resultant force and the
angle it makes with the horizontal.
Solution

Water

9m
A
x

CG
3m

F1

FH

W
C
FV

Free-body diagram
79

The magnitude of F1 is found from the equation

F1 = A Hc
Hc = 7.5 m, A = 4*3 (curved surface area), =9.81 kN/m3
F1 = 9.81*12*7.5 = 882.9 kN
But F1 = FH, therefore
FH = 882.9 kN
W= * volume

Curved surface
Area above
curved surface

=9.81*[(3.14*9/4)+ 3*6)]*4
= 983.6 kN

Length of curved
gate

FV = 983.6 kN
80

FR = ( FH + FV ) 0.5
= (882.9 + 983.6)0.5
=1321.7 kN

= tan-1(FH/FV)
=tan-1(882.9/983.6)
=

81

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

Recall general equation of motion
^
-P - k=
a

So that for x-axis

a x
x

Fluid at rest or in motion with

no shear stress
For y-axis

a y
y

For z-axis

p
a z
z

z
y
x

If a fluid in motion is assumed to undergo rigid-body motion then

shear stress can be neglected. Eg. Fluid in container accelerating
82
along a straight path.

(a) Linear motion

Consider an open container translating along a straight path
at a constant acceleration a
Free surface
Slope= dz/dy

P
P2 1
P3

Constant
pressure lines

Since ax=0, the pressure

gradient in the x-direction is
zero and therefore it follows:
p
a y
a
az
y
p
( g az )
z

ay

If we consider two points that are closely spaced:( y and y+y)

and (z and z+ z) then change in pressure can be expressed:
83

p
p
dp
dy dz
y
z

Recall

p
a y
y

p
( g az )
z

dp a y dy ( g a z )dz
Along a line of constant pressure dp= o and therefore

ay
dz

dy
g az

84

(b) Rigid-body rotation

Consider a fluid contained in a tank that rotates with a
constant angular velocity about an axis
Since the path of the fluid is circular, we make use of
cylindrical polar coordinates: r, and z
The acceleration in the r, and z directions are given by
ar=-rw2 , a=0, az=0
p
p
2 A
r a 0
x
r

ir
pressures=is

from

p

z

The
a function of 2
- z.
variables, r and
o
fr
p
p
w
dp
dr r
dz
2
r
z
o
t

^
-P - k=
a

Axis of
rotation

ar=-rw2
85

dp r 2 dr dz

(i)

Along a surface of constant pressure, such as free surface,

dp=0, so that
The equation for surfaces of constant
dz r 2

pressure is
dr
g
Equation reveals that
w r
z
const. surfaces of constant
2g
pressure are parabolic
2

Pressure distribution
in a rotating liquid

dp 2 rdr dz

w 2 r 2
p
z const.
2

p1
P2
P3
P4

P1

w2 r 2
.
2g

P2
P3
P4

y
x
86

Example
The cross section for the fuel tank of an experimental vehicle is shown
below. The rectangular tank is vented to the atmosphere, and a pressure
transducer is located in its side as illustrated. During testing of the
vehicle, the tank is subjected to a constant linear acceleration, ay (a)
Determine an expression that relates ay and the pressure (in lb/ft2) at the
transducer for a fuel with a SG=0.65. (b) What is the maximum
acceleration that can occur before the fuel level drops below the
transducer?
ay

vent
z
Air

z1

Fuel
(2)

(1)
0.75 ft

0.5 ft

Transducer

0.75 ft
87

Solution
For a constant horizontal acceleration the fuel will move as a rigid body.
The slope of the fuel surface can be expressed as
ay
dz

dy
g

Since az=0

For an arbitrary value of ay, the change in depth z1, of liquid on the right side
of the tank can be found from the Eq.

ay
z1

0.75 ft
g

z1= (0.75) (ay/g)

Since there is no pressure in the vertical z direction, the pressure along the
wall varies hydrostatically with depth. Thus, the pressure at the transducer
is given by
h is the depth of fuel above the transducer
P = h

P= (0.65)(62.4)[0.5-(0.750(ay/g )
= 20.3 30.4 (ay/g)

For z1 0.588 ft

(b) The limiting value for ay ( when the fuel level reaches
the transducer) can be found from the Eq.
z1= (0.75) (ay/g)
For z1 = 0.5, acceleration becomes (ay)max
0.5= (0.75) (ay)max /g)
(ay)max = 2g/3

89

Chapter 3 Flow of Fluids: Conservation of Mass, Energy and

Momentum
General Conservation Laws
Consideration of the conservation laws of three major
extensive quantities:
-Mass: total mass
-Total energy: the sum of internal, kinetic potential, and
pressure energy
-Momentum: both linear and angular

90

Fig. 3.1 (a) System and its surrounding (b) transfers to and from the
system

91

92

The Continuity Equation

Now consider one-dimensional duct showing control
volume

93

By principle of conservation of mass and considering a

small time, t

This equation is called the continuity equation for

steady one-dimensional flow.
94

Example: Mass balance for tank evacuation

The tank shown below has a volume V= 1 m 3 and contains
air that is maintained at a constant temperature by being in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. If the initial absolute
pressure is Po= 1 bar, how long will it take for the pressure to
fall to a final pressure of 0.0001 bar if the air is evacuated at
a constant rate of v=0.001 m3/s, independent of the pressure
in the tank.

95

96

Example
Let us now examine the situation illustrated in the figure below.
A tank initially contains 1000 kg of brine containing 10% salt by
mass. An inlet stream of brine containing 20% salt by mass,
flows into the tank at a rate of 20 kg/min. The mixture in the
tank is kept uniform by stirring. Brine is removed from the tank
via an outlet pipe at a rate of 10 kg/min. Find the amount of salt
in the tank at any time t, and the elapsed time 97
when the amount
of salt in the tank is 200 kg.

98

99

3.3 Energy Balances

Identity of energies
-internal energy, e
-potential energy, gz
-kinetic energy, u2/2
-work, W
-heat, Q
-flow work/energy, P/

100

Recall
Xin Xout = Xsystem
In the present situation, X, refers to energy. Application of this equation over small time
period gives
dMin (e+P/+gz+u2/2)in dMout (e+P/+gz+u2/2)out + dQ-dW= d[M(e+gz+u2/2)]system
(3.3)
Now, let us consider a general system given below

Steady-state
energy balance

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

m1
m2
m3
m4
m5
mn

Momentum= mu

u1
u2
u3
u4
u5

u dm

un
110

The law of conservation of momentum

The net rate of transfer of momentum into a system equals the
rate of increase of momentum of the system. Momentum is
transferred by two modes: by a force and by convection.
1. A force: In fluid mechanics, the most frequently occurring
forces are those due to pressure (acting normal to the
surface), shear stress (acting tangentially to the surface)
and gravity (acting vertically downwards). Pressure and shear
stress are examples of contact forces, since they occur over
some region of contact with the surroundings of the system.
Gravity is a body force since it acts throughout a system.

111

112

Now lets consider a steady flow of fluid is a pipe of length L

and diameter D. The upstream pressure p1 exceeds the
downstream pressure p2 and thereby provides a driving
force for flow from left to the right. The shear stress w
exerted by the wall on the fluid tends to retard the motion.

D 2
d
( p1 p 2 ) wDL ()
4
dt

Momentum balance in
the right direction
113

2. By Convective transfer. Lets consider a

situation given below in which water from a hose
of x-sectional area A impinges with velocity u on
the far side of the trolley of mass m.
Rate of
momentum
transfer = Au2
(momentum per
unit time)
114

Two scenarios
(a)Control surface moving with trolley. When the control surface
moves at the same velocity as the trolley, an observation
perceives water entering the system across BC not with velocity
u but with a relative velocity (u-v) so that the convection of mass
into the control volume is A(u-v).
Stationery
Observermoving system

115

A
2
a
(u v)
m
116

(b) Control volume fixed. The control volume is fixed so that

the trolley moves within it and that part of the jet of length L
inside the control surface is lengthening in space at a rate
dL/dt = v and increasing its momentum at ALu.

Stationery observer-fixed system

117

A mass balance gives:

Rate of addition of mass= rate of increase of mass

dm d
dm
Au
( AL)
Av
dt dt
dt
since dL/dt= v
Momentum balance gives
Rate of addition = Rate of increase
Au 2

d
dv
dm
dL
(mv ALu ) m v
Au
dt
dt
dt
dt

dm
Auv =
= ma v
since dv/dt=a and dL/dt=v
dt
From mass balance equation dm/dt = A(u-v)

118

Example: Impinging jet of water

The figure below shows a plan of a jet of water impinging
against a shield that is held stationery by a force F opposing
the jet, which divides into several radially outwards streams,
each leaving at the right angles to the jet. If the total water flow
rate is Q=1 ft3/s and its velocity is u= 100 ft/s, find F (lbf)
119

Jet impinging against

a shield
shield
m
u

Force, F

Solution
Taking the right direction as
positive and assuming fluid
mass flow as m the rate of
transfer of momentum into
the system by convection is
mu

The exiting streams have no momentum to the right.

The opposing force amounts to the rate of addition of momentum F
to the left and hence at steady state

120

Chapter Five: Flow Measurements

In process industries, Flowing systems require energy,
typically provided by
-pumps and compressors,
The two produce a pressure difference as the driving force
Wide variety of methods and instruments for
measuring flow
-Devices based on Bernoulli principle; orifice plate, rotameter, Pitot-static
tube, venturi meter

-Weir and Notch

- Meters: Turbine meter, Target meter, Thermal flow meter

121

Turbine flow meter

Turbine flow meter consists of a small in-line turbine

placed inside a section of pipe, the rotation speed,
which can be transmitted electrically to a recorder,
depends on the flow rate.
122

Target flow meter

Typically consisting of a disk mounted on flexible arm

and placed normal to the flow in a pipe. The
displacement of the disk, and hence the flow rate, is
determined from the output of a strain gauge attached
to the arm
123

Devices based on Bernoulli Principle

Orifice plate meter
An orifice plate is a very simple device installed in a straight run
of pipe. The orifice plate contains a hole smaller than the
pipe diameter. The flow constricts, experiences a pressure
drop, and then the differential pressure can be related to a
flow.

124

It is also important to note that relating differential

pressure to flow across an orifice depends on the location
of the pressure taps in relation to the orifice. In the Figure
below, the pressure taps are designated as P1 and P2.
"D" is the diameter of the pipe and "d" is the diameter of
the orifice.

125

Let apply Bernoullis equation at points 1 and 2

(see orifice plate arrangement above) which have the
same elevation (z1=z2)

u12 p1 u 22 p 2

5.1

126

127

Pitot tube
The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures
a fluid velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the
flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at
the stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance
(see the schematic below). The device is based on
Bernoulli principle and is used in finding the velocity of a
moving craft such as a boat and airplane.

128

129

Pitot-static tube
For pipe flow, we make use of pitot-static tube as shown
below for measuring velocity at

different radial locations in a pipe. Two tubes are used. The

left hand tube simply measures the pressure and the movable
right-hand one is essentially a Pitot tube as before. As was
before the velocity u1 is given by
u1 2 gh

130

3. Venturi meter
A venturi meter is a tube with a constricted throat that increases
velocity and decreases pressure. They are used for measuring the
flowrate of compressible and incompressible fluids in pipeline
Contracting
section

Expanding
section

Pipe

Pipe
Throat

V1

D1

High-pressure tap
p1

D2

V2

D1

Low-pressure tap
p2

131

132

133

134

Problem:
Water is flowing in a schedule 40 pipe having nominal D1 = 4 inch with a flowrate of
325 gal/min at 60F. The pressure differential in the manometer connected to the two
taps of the venturi meter is 50 inch Hg. Calculate (a) throat diameter D2 of the venturi
meter to the nearest 1/8 inch and (b) power consumed by the venturi meter (assume
10% pressure loss).

135

136

137

4. Rota Meter

Annular
area a

p2

Scale

z2

Tapered
tube
Float

Flow

Mg

z1
p1

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float

inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow
rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate
the flow, so the float rises.
138

139

140

141

The flow rate is then

2 Mg 1

Q A u1 A
2
A
A 1
a

142

Buoyancy Example Problem # 1

Displaced Volume of Water:

Buoyancy Force:

Vdisp-W = 4/3 x x R3

FB = W x Vdisp-w

Vdisp-W = 33.51 ft3

FB = 62.4 x 33.51

FB = 2091.024 lbs up
Sum of the Forces:
Fy = 0 = 500 - 2091.024 + T

T = 1591.024 lbs down

143

144

FR = A YC sin
or FR = A Hc

YR = (Ixc / YcA) + Yc
XR = (Ixyc / YcA) + Xc
but for a rectangle or
circle: XR = Xc
For 90 degree walls:
F145
R = A Hc

Surrounding S

System V

Loss through
outlet(s)
Accumulation
(or depletion)

Boundary B
Addition through
inlet(s)
V=1m

Po= 1 bar

To vacuum pump
V=0.001 m3/s
(independent of
pressure)
146

dMin

Work done,
dW

system
dMout
Heat added, dQ

147

W (Work)

system
Outlet
q (heat)

148

Vent
Storage
tank

40 ft
flow

Vent
Supply
tank

1
3

4.5 ft

4 ft
pump

149

Wall shear stress w

P1

Direction
of flow

P2

150

System is moving
with velocity v

B
Water
supply

jet
v

Stationery
observer
C

151

System is
stationery

B
Water
supply

jet
L
m

Stationery
observer

152

shield
m
u

Force, F

153

A2

A1
1

154

water

1
Stagnation point

155

movable

Pipe wall
u1
Velocity
profile

liquid

Stagnation point

156

157

20 kg/min
Salt content
20% by mass

Tank, initial
content 100kg

10 kg/min

158