CASTING

PROCEDURES
By:
Dr. Payal Singh
PG II Year
Department conservative dentistry and
endodontics
1

CONTENTS

Introduction
Definitions
History
Casting procedures
Spruing
Investing
Burnout/wax elimination and heating
Casting
Pickling
Finishing
2

Accelerated casting technique

Casting defects
Conclusion
References

INTRODUCTION
Casting is a commonly used procedure
in the field of restorative and
prosthetic dentistry.

CASTING:- Is defined as something

that has been cast in a mold, an
object formed by the solidification of
a fluid that has been poured or
injected into a mold.(GPT-8)
4

Sprue: the channel or hole through which

plastic or metal is poured or cast into a
gate or reservoir and then into a mold. 1

DEFINITIONS
5

DEFINITIONS

Sprue button: the material remaining

in the reservoir of the mold after a
dental casting.1
Sprue former: a wax, plastic, or metal
pattern used to form the channel or
channels allowing molten metal to
flow into a mold to make a casting
(also called as sprue pin). 1

Invest: to surround, envelop, or

embed in an investment material. 1

Investing: the process of covering or

enveloping, wholly or in part, an
object such as a denture, tooth, wax
form, crown, etc. with a suitable
investment
material
before
processing, soldering, or casting. 1

DEFINITIONS
7

Dental casting investment: a material

consisting principally of an allotrope
of silica and a bonding agent. The
bonding substance may be gypsum
(for use in lower casting
temperatures) or phosphates and
silica (for use in higher casting
temperatures). 1

DEFINITIONS
8

DEFINITIONS

Crucible: a vessel or container made

of any refractory material (frequently
porcelain) used for melting or
calcining any substance that requires
a high degree of heat.

CASTING CRUCIBLES
3 types of casting crucibles are available : Clay,
Carbon and Quartz (Zircon alumina).

Clay crucible many of crown bridge alloys such

as high noble-alloy.

Carbon crucible high noble crown bridge

alloy, higher fusing alloy , gold based metal
ceramic alloy.

Quartz crucibles High fusing alloys of any type

that have a high melting range and are sensitive
to carbon contamination.
Nickel/cobalt based alloys.

10

DEFINITIONS

Pickle: a solution or bath for

preserving or cleaning; any of various
baths used in cleaning or processing.
1

Pickle\ pickling: to treat, preserve, or

clean in or with an agent. 1

11

CASTING PROCEDURES

12

OBJECTIVES OF CASTING

1) To heat the alloy as quickly as possible to a

completely molten condition.

2) To prevent oxidation by heating the metal

with a well adjusted torch.

3) To produce a casting with sharp details by

having adequate pressure to the well melted
metal to force into the mold

CASTING PROCEDURES

The basic steps involved in the casting of fixed

partial denture are
1. Tooth preparation.
2. Impression and die preparation.
3. Wax pattern preparation.
4. Spruing.

14

5. Investing.
6. Burnout.
7. Casting of molten alloy.

15

8. Recovery of casting, cleaning.

9. Finishing and polishing

16

CASTING PROCEDURES FOR

CROWN AND FIXED PARTIAL
DENTURE
W.H.Taggart introduced lost-wax casting
technique in 1907. and the process consists
of :

17

This was followed by Jameson

who introduced the centrifugalcasting machine in 1907 and
Solbrig who introduced the
steam-pressure casting machine.

The Richmond Casting Machine

was invented and patented in
1926.

The machine could be operated

to cast by a combination of
vacuum
and
pressure
successively or simultaneously.
The pressures generated were
recorded in the pressure gauge
and were controllable to give

18

Spruing
19

3 Basic requirements of sprue:1) Must allow the molten wax to escape from the
mould.
2) Sprue must enable the molten metal to flow
into the mould with as little turbulence as
possible.
3) The metal within it must remain molten
slightly longer than the alloy that has filled the
mold. This provides a reservoir to compensate for
the shrinkage that occurs during solidification of
the casting.

SPRUING
20

SPRUING
The process of attaching a sprue
former/sprue pin to the wax pattern is
called as spruing
Purpose:To provide a channel through which
molten alloy can reach the mold in an
invested ring after the wax has been
eliminated.

21

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING AN
APPROPRIATE SPRUE

22

Types of sprues:
Sprues made of different materials
Wax
Plastic
Metal

SPRUING
23

Wax sprues are preferred for most castings

because they melt at the same rate as the
pattern and thus allow easy escape of the
molten wax.2

SPRUING
24

Solid plastic sprues

Plastic sprues may be completely solid (or) hallow

plastic help in wax elimination.
Used for castings of alloys which use 2 stage burn
out with PBI (phosphate bonded investment).
Main disadvantage - They soften at a higher
temperature than the wax pattern and may block
the escape of wax, resulting in increased casting
roughness.
They may be used for casting FPDs because of
their high rigidity, which minimizes distortion.

SPRUING
25

Metal sprues can be solid or hollow tubes.

Later one is preferable- it increases the
surface contact area and strengthens the
attachment between sprue and pattern.
If metal sprue is used, it should be made of
non rusting metal to avoid possible
contamination of wax.

They are removed from the investment at the

same time when the crucible former is
removed.

Care should be taken to examine the orifice

while removing because small amount of
investment chip-off which result in incomplete
SPRUING
casting
or inclusion of foreign object in the
26
casting.

Any overheating of the wax, which could

distort the pattern, must be avoided.

For this reason, hollow metal or plastic sprue

formers are preferred since they hold less
heat than a solid sprue former.

The sprue former should be smooth and

produce no sharp angles at the juncture of
the wax pattern or the crucible former.

SPRUING
27

DIAMETER

The sprue former should be at least

1.7 mm (14 gauge) to 2.5 mm(10
gauge) in diameter.4

SPRUING
28

2. Sprue gauge/size (diameter)

29

Large diameter sprue: this improves the flow

of
molten metal into the mould. The
diameter of sprue should be equal to the
thickest portion the wax pattern.

less diameter sprue:

shrinkage porosity

A narrow sprue may be useful in air pressure

casting procedure where the metal is melted
on crucible former and narrow sprue prevent
the premature metal flow into mold.

causes

localized

30

3) LENGTH Very short sprue : the wax pattern may be

so far removed from the end of the
casting ring, that gases cannot be
adequately vented to permit the molten
alloy to fill the ring completely, leading to
porosity in casting at the junction of sprue and
pattern.

Very long sprue : metal will freeze in the

sprue before it freezes in the inlay or
crown, thus preventing the metal from
entering the mold- shrinkage porosity.

SPRUING
31

It can be overcome by using a larger

sprue/reservoir.

Reservoir- is a small amount of additional

wax which is added to the sprue former near
the junction of wax pattern

Because of the large mass of alloy and

its position in the heat centre of the
ring, the reservoir remains molten to
furnish liquid alloy constantly into the
mold.

SPRUING
32

Hence it prevents localized shrinkage

porosity as the alloy in this part
solidifies last after the solidification of
metal in the mold.

It must be larger than the adjacent

portion of the pattern into which the
sprue former is inserted.

It is used in direct spruing.

33

The horizontal running bar of indirect

spruing provides the same function;
which
are generally used when the
distance between the crucible and
pattern is more.

The reservoir is present in prefabricated

plastic sprues also.

34

D) Sprue shape

The sprue former should be straight to

reduce chances of creating turbulence in
molten metal entering the mold.

High turbulence of alloy cause porosity

35

E) Number Of Sprue:

Usually a single sprue is used for small

castings.

When two thick sections of a pattern

are connected by thin part of wax, 2
separate sprues should be attached to
each thick portion.

The double sprue design is more

effective than the single sprue design in
decreasing the internal porosity. (jpd vol
78 no 4 oct 1997)
36

F) Attachment of sprue former

and wax pattern

Patterns may be sprued either directly or

indirectly.
For direct spruing : the sprue former provides
a direct connection between the pattern area
and sprue base.
In indirect spruing : a connector or reservoir
bar is positioned between the pattern and
crucible former.

37

It is common to use indirect spruing for

multiple single units and fixed partial
dentures, although several single units can
be sprued with multiple direct sprue
formers.

38

Principles of spruing
a) Location of attachment
b) Angulation of sprue
c) Attachment morphology

39

A) location of attachment

The ideal location for attachment of

sprue is the thickest portion of wax
pattern, away from the margins and
occlusal contacts; at greatest crosssection of the pattern.

The sprue should not be located where

it can obliterate centric occulsal
contacts and centric cusp tips and
margins.

40

Largest noncentric cusp.

Point of attachment should permit a

stream of metal to be directed to all parts
of the mold without having to flow
opposite the direction of the casting force.

Sprue must also allow for proper

positioning of the pattern in the ring. This
can be critical because expansion within
the mold is not uniform.
SPRUING
41

Eg.; Spruing on the cusp tip can give

good results, but spruing on the
proximal contact may produce a casting
that is too wide mesiodistally and too
short occlusocervically.

SPRUING
42

b) Angle of sprue
attachment

The sprue should be attached to

pattern such that it makes 45 to
the walls of mold, which
decreases the turbulence of
molten alloy.

If
the
sprue
is
placed
perpendicular to the mold wall,
it induces high turbulence in
molten alloy, leading to creation
of a hot spot on mold wall.
43

c) Attachment morphology
The attachment of sprue former to the wax pattern
should be such that the transition is smooth and do
not posses pits / irregularities into which
investment can flow.
Attachment area should not be restricted
because necking increases casting porosity
and reduces mold filling.
Usually it is flared for high density gold alloys
but restricted for low density alloys. Flaring
acts as reservoir and facilitates the entry of
molten alloy into the mold area.
44

SPRUE DIRECTION
Should be directed away from any
thin or delicate parts of the pattern,
because the molten metal may
abrade or fracture investment in this
area and result in a casting failure.

SPRUING
45

VENTING

Small auxiliary sprues or vents are

recommended to improve casting of thin
patterns. Usually 18- gauges sprues are
used.
It is indicated with extremely
thin/thick casting to produce nonporous
castings.

They help in escape of gases during

casting or ensure that solidification begins
in critical areas by acting as a heat sink.

SPRUING
46

When these gasses are not eliminated

completed, porosity may result.

Therefore, the sprue length should be

adjusted so that the top of the wax
pattern is:
within 6 mm of trail end for gypsum
bonded investment and
3 to 4mm for phosphate bonded
investment

SPRUING
47

INDIRECT SPRUING:
Indirect spruing uses the same basic principles
of spruing
But the only difference lies in attachment of 3
running horizontal bars. The whole indirect
sprue complex consist of 3 parts.

The need for indirect spruing, as the ambient

air is colder than molten alloy the button
solidifies earlier than molten alloy. So, it can no
longer serve as a reservoir to prevent shrink
spot porosity.

The use of horizontal runner bar will act as

reservoirs of molten alloy, which equalizes the
flow to all parts of F.P.D and stabilizes the
pattern against distortion during investment.

Casting ring

50

The casting ring holds the investment

material around the wax pattern during
setting and restricts the expansion of the
mold.

It also allow the hardened investment to be

safely handled during burnout and casting

CASTING RING

51

They are available as---

1) Shapes
- Round
- Oval
2)
I) Complete rings - Rigid
- Metal (stainless steel)
- Plastic
- Flexible - Rubber
II) Split rings
- Metal
- Plastic
3)
I) Cylindrical
II) Conical

Considerations in selection of castings

rings: -

1) The internal diameter of casting ring should

be 5-10mm greater than the widest
measurement of the pattern and about 6 mm
higher.
2) For single crown/inlay
used. Diameter - 32 mm

- small rings as

3) For large fixed partial denture 63mm

round/oval shaped casting ring are used

Usually casting rings are rigid in nature.

Because of this the mold may become smaller
rather than larger due to the reverse pressure
resulting from confinement of the setting
expansion. To overcome this flexible rings/
split rings are used.

But the most commonly used technique is to

provide expansion by lining the ring with a
ring liner.

CASTING RING LINER

They are commonly used to produce expansion

of mold. Various materials used as ring liners
---1. Asbestos liner
2. Cellulose (blotting paper) liner
3. Ceramic ring liner
4. Combination of ceramic and cellulose ring
liner
5. Wax crinkled paper

Functions of ring liner

1. Allow uniform setting expansion of investment
by decreasing the confinement of rigid casting ring.

2. In case of wet liner technique ---the

absorbed water causes a semi-hygroscopic
expansion as it is drawn into the investment
during setting.
The use of one liner increases the normal
setting expansion compared with no liner.

3.Thickness of the liner should be atleast1mm.

4.The amount of expansion depends on the
number of liners used. The expansion seen with 2
liners is greater than one liner.

TYPES OF RING LINER

1. Asbestos liner: Asbestos is refractory to high
temperature, they show a sufficient amount of
water absorption. There are 3 types of
asbestos--

White asbestos (least toxic) this type is used

in dentistry
Blue asbestos (most toxic)
Brown asbestos (Intermediately toxic)

Asbestos is no longer used in dentistry. As

produces 3 types of diseases
1) Asbestosis
2) Bronchogenic lung cancer
3) Mesothelioma fatal tumour

Nonasbestos liners are

aluminosilicate ceramic liner and
cellulose liner.2,5

CASTING RING LINER

60

Ceramic ring liner

They do not absorb water, but its network
of fibres can retain small amount of water
on its surface. Wetting agents can be used
to increase the water sorption on surface.
Cellulose liner
This material shows adequate water
absorption. But as they are paper
products, they burnt during burnout
procedure.
This also restricts the longitudinal setting
and hygroscopic expansion.

Using a thicker liner material or two

layers of liner provides even greater
semi-hygroscopic expansion and also
affords a more unrestricted normal
setting expansion of the investment.

CASTING RING LINER

62

PROCEDURE
Cut the liner to fit within the diameter
of the ring, with no overlap.
Tacked in position with sticky wax,
then used dry or wet.

Wet liner technique- lined ring

immersed in water for a time, and
excess water is shaken away.
Squeezing the liner should be
avoided, because this leads to
variable amounts of water removal
and nonuniform expansion.
63

If the length of the liner is somehwat shorter

than the ring itself, the investment is confined
at one or both the ends of the ring.

The expansion of the investment is always greater

in the unrestricted longitudinal direction than in
the radical direction, that is, towards the ring.

Therefore it is desirable to reduce the expansion in

the longitudinal direction. Placing the liner
somewhat short (3.25 mm) of the ends of the ring
tends to produce a more uniform expansion; thus
there is less chance for distortion of the wax
pattern and the mold.

CASTING RING LINER

64

For Post and core do not use a ring

liner to obtain a slightly smaller dowel
core that should have least expansion
and tendency to bind in the canal.

65

RINGLESS CASTING SYSTEM

Plastic ring with rubber crucible formers are

used. The ring is conical in shape with
tapering walls. As the investment sets the
investment is tapped out of ring. Then
burnout is done with out casting ring, this
causes greater expansion

Sprue is attached to a crucible

former, made of rubber or metal,
which constitutes the base of the
casting ring during investing.2

CRUCIBLE FORMER
67

CRUCIBLE FORMER

The base to which a sprue former is

attached while the wax pattern is being
invested in refractory investment.
It can be a a convex rubber, plastic, or
metal base that forms a concave
depression or crucible in the refractory
investment.

68

They are available as---Rubber crucible former

Metallic Crucible former
Plastic crucible former

Crucible formers are basically of 2 types---

a) Steep-sided cone: used with metal when

casted using centrifugal casting force. The tall
crucible formers allow the use of short sprue.
b) Shallow cone: used to cast metal using
stream/air pressure

They form a conical depression in investment,

which guides flow of molten metal.

It should be clean and petroleum is applied to

prevent formation of rough investment tag.

Molten sticky wax is applied on the apex of cone

portion of crucible former, which contains a hole
(for passing the sprue former)

Then the end of sprue former is passed into

the hole and held in position till the molten
wax sets.

The attachment area should be smooth and

without irregularities to prevent creation of
investment tags which are prone to fracture
when alloy is forced into mold.

Investing

73

An investment should fulfill the following

requirements:2,6

It must reproduce precisely the detailed form of

the wax pattern.

It must provide sufficient strength to withstand

the heat of the burnout and the actual casting
of the molten metal.
It must expand sufficiently to compensate for
the solidification shrinkage of the alloy.

Sufficient porosity to allow for gas escape.

Easy recovery of the casting.

74

Three types of investments- employed

depending on the melting range of the
alloy and the preference of the clinician.

Gypsum bonded- used for casting of gold alloy

inlays, onlays, crowns and fixed partial
dentures(FPDs).

Phosphate bonded- for some base metal

alloys and framework of metal - ceramic
prosthesis .It can also be used for pressable

ceramics.5
INVESTING
75

Ethyl silicate bonded investment- for

removable partial dentures with base
metal alloy (Co- Ni based alloy) 5

INVESTING
76

Types of gypsum-bonded casting investments

(based on whether the appliance is fixed or
removable & on the method of expansion.
Type I: For casting inlays and crowns.
Thermal expansion
Type II: For casting inlays, onlays and crowns
Hygroscopic expansion
Type III: For casting partial dentures with gold
alloys.

ADA SPECIFICATION NO. 2

77

PHILLIPS

Composition of gypsum bonded

investment

Binder: a- calcium sulfate hemihydrate

(25%-35%)
Refractory: Silica (SiO2) Quartz,
Cristobalite (65%-75%)
Modifiers: coloring agent, reduction
agents e.g. carbon, Cu (2%-3%)

78

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENT

Setting time ------------5 - 25 min.

In modern investment material 9 18

min.

Setting expansion ----- 0.4%- 0.6%

For type 1, thermal expansion 1 % 1.6%

For type 2, hygroscopic setting

expansion is 1.2% - 2.2%

79

Investing Of Gypsum Bonded Investments

Require very specific W:P ratios .

A variation of only 1ml of H2O can

significantly alter the setting expansion &
the character of the casting surface.

Lower water/powder ratio or drier the mix for the

investment, greater is the setting expansion.

Increasing W:P ratio makes investing process

easier but also causes
Inferior
casting
surface

looses strength
Investment material Cracks
heating

during

After the casting ring has been filled with

investment material, any excess should be
removed before the material sets.

The filled ring is now set aside to allow the

investment material to complete its setting
reaction
&
the
accompanying
setting
expansion.

Setting is complete in 30-40min.

If Hygroscopic technique is used.

- Freshly filled investment ring is immediately
placed into water bath for 30min. & kept at
100F(37C).

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENT

Factors that increase expansion :

Use of a full width ring liner

Prolonged spatulation
Storage at 100% humidity
Lower water : powder ratio
Use of two ring liners
Use of wet ring liner
Adding water before completion of setting
reaction
Thinner wax pattern
82

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

Are much stronger and withstand much

higher temperature than do gypsum
bonded investment.

Used for investing and casting alloys

with higher melting temperatures- silver
palladium,
gold
platinum,
nickel
chromium.2,6

83

COMPOSITION
Refractory materials 80% Silica
(quartz , cristobalite or a mixture of
two)

Binder (<20%)
Magnesium oxide, phosphoric acid
(liquid)
Or
monoammonium
phosphate (can be incorporated
into powder).
Modifiers :
Carbon is often added - to produce
clean
casting
and
facilitate
divesting.
84

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

Working and setting time:
Affected by temperature
(Warmer the mix, faster it sets)

Setting reaction gives off heat and this

further accelerates the rate of setting.

Increased mixing time and mixing

efficiency- faster set and greater rise in
temperature.
85

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

Increased expansion that they exhibit
results from a combination of the
following factors:2

1)Heat from the setting reaction softens

the wax and allows freer setting
expansion.

2)The increased strength of the material

at high temperatures restricts shrinkage
of the alloy as it cools.
86

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

3) Powder mixed with colloidal silica

reduces the surface roughness of the
castings and also increases expansion.

87

Methods to increase expansion

Expansion of the mold cavity can be increased
by-1) increasing the no. of layers of asbestos or
fibrous ceramic liners lining the casting ring.
2) increasing the special liquid : water ratio.
3) increasing the total L:P ratio.
4) Placing the investment in contact with water
during setting.
5) Burning out the mold at a higher temp.

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENTDEGUVEST IMPACT

Liquid- alkaline
100 gm: 23 ml
Mixing time under vacuum- 60 seconds
Processing time- 4-6 minutes
Setting time- 20-50 minutes

The expansion can be controlled when these

liquid are diluted with distilled water.

Higher the concentration of special liquidgreater the total expansion of the investment .
89

However increasing the amount of liquid has

following effects:
Thinner consistency.
Extended processing time.
Slightly lower strength.
Increased expansion.
A small amount of liquid added has following
effects:
Danger of formation of cracks
Rougher surface of the casting.

90

ETHYL SILICATE BONDED

INVESTMENT

This investment material is not used in

today's
practice
because
of
more
complicated
and
time
consuming
procedure.

Some times it is used for high fusing base

metal partial denture alloys.

Binder is a silica gel which can be

obtained from ethyl silicate, and it reverts
to silica (cristoballite) on heating.
91

INVESTING PROCEDURE

Wax pattern should be cleaned of any

debris, grease or oil.5

Waxit is an approved wetting agent for

the precision waxing technique.

Wax pattern should be treated with

waxit as it reduces the surface tension
of the wax and permits better wetting of
the investment to ensure complete
coverage of the intricate portions of the
pattern.
92

Ultimately results in castings

smooth surface without bubbles.

with

After spruing, cover the entire surface of

the wax pattern with waxit.

Blow off excess moisture and invest

immediately.

INVESTING
93

Special liquid (colloidal silica) or water is

added to the clean dry bowl.

Then gradually powder is added till all

powder particles get wet .

Then Mixing of investment may be done

either by i) Vacuum mixing
ii) Hand mixing

MIXING
94

Advantages of vacuum mixing----1) Remove air bubbles

2) Produce smooth castings
3) Increase tensile strength of investment
4) 95% of castings free of nodules.
5) Removes all the gaseous by products of chemical
reaction of investment material

95

The incidence of nodules on casting is more in

hand mixing than vacuum mixing. Application
of surface tension reducing agent decreased
the nodules (Johnston, IJP, 1992, 5; 424-433).

The best method is vacuum mix and vacuum

pour technique. But most popular method
vacuum mix and open pour.

INVESTING
Once mixing is completed, the pattern
may be hand invested or vacuum
invested.
The incidence of bubble free casting
with different investing technique
Open investing - 17%
Vacuum investing - 95%

I) Vacuum mixing and Hand

investing (brushing technique)

This technique is used in case of

phosphate - bonded investment to prevent
air entrapment and casting defects.

Brush technique: In this technique, pattern is

first painted with surface tension reducer; the
surface must be wet completely

In this technique mixing is done on vac-uvester (vacuum mixing) then before filling the
ring, the entire wax pattern is painted (inside
and out) with a thin layer of investment with
investment material using brush.

After the pattern has been completely coated ,

place the lined casting ring over the crucible
former and with the aid of vibration, pour the
investment and fill the ring slowly, starting
from the bottom and moving up.

A finger positioned under the crucible former

on the table of the vibrator minimizes the
risk of excessive vibration and possible
breaking of the pattern from the sprue.

When the investment reaches the level of

the pattern, tilt the ring several times to
cover and uncover the pattern, thereby
minimizing the possible entrapment of air.

Investing must be performed quickly within

the working time of the investment.

If the investment begins to set too soon, rinse

it off quickly with cold water. The wax
pattern can then be replaced on the die,
and its margins can be reflowed again.

After the ring is filled to the rim, allow the

investment to set.

For thermal expansion or high heat

technique, the invested ring is allowed to
bench set undisturbed for the time
recommended by the manufacturer.5

 If

the hygroscopic technique is used,

the ring is placed in a 37 C (100 F)
water bath for 1 hour with the
crucible former side down.

INVESTING
103

ii) Vacuum Mixing And Vacuum Investing

Technique

Same equipment used to mix the

investment
and invest the pattern
under vacuum.

First, hand
spatulate the
mix

INVESTING

With the crucible

former and pattern
in place, attach the
ring to the mixing
bowl

Attach the
vacuum hose
to evacuate air
and gases
104

mix according to the manufacturer's

recommendations

INVESTING

Invert the bowl and

fill the ring under
vibration . Remove
the vacuum hose
before shutting off
the mixer

Remove the filled

ring and crucible
former from the bowl
105

Vacuum investing:

Amount of porosity in the investment is

reduced- texture of the cast surface is
smoother
with
better
detail
reproduction.

Tensile strength- increased.

INVESTING
106

Excessive vibrations should be avoided,

because it can cause solids in the
investment to settle and may lead to
free water accumulation adjacent to the
wax pattern, resulting in surface
roughness.5

Excessive vibration may also dislodge

small patterns from the sprue former,
resulting in a miscast.

INVESTING
107

Wax elimination and

heating

108

Gypsum bonded and phosphate bonded

investment are ready for burnout after setting
of one hour (they should be kept in 100%
humidity in case if burnout is delayed).

1. Remove crucible former and any metal

sprue.

2. Clean the debris from the ingate

area(funneled opening at the end of the ring)
with camel hair brush.

3. Place the sprue hole down at first , for easy

draining out of wax Eliminated as a liquid .

WAX ELIMINATION AND HEATING

109

4. Invert ring , for the oxygen in the oven

atmosphere to circulate more readily , to
form gases rather than fine carbon which may
interfere with venting .
5. Then Investing rings are placed in a
room temperature furnace and heated to
prescribed maximum temperature.

110

IDEAL TEMPERATURE RANGES

--Gypsum bonded investments - 5000 C for
hygroscopic technique 20mins (or) 7000 C for
thermal expansion.
-Phosphate bonded investments Room
temp. to max (7000 C to 10300 C) depending on
alloy for 30 mins.
- General rule Add 5 minutes to the wax
elimination for every extra ring placed in the
oven at 5000C.

111

During burnout, some of the melted wax is

absorbed by the investment and the
residual carbon produced by ignition of
molten wax - becomes trapped in the
porous investment.

To avoid this burnout procedure should

begin when the mould is still wet.

Water trapped in the pores of the

investment reduces the absorption of waxas water vaporizes, it flushes wax from the
mould.

WAX ELIMINATION AND HEATING

112

HYGROSCOPIC LOW HEAT TECHNIQUE

Heating is done at 500c for 60 minute ( It

can be done up to 5 hour or longer with little
damage)

Here expansion is obtained by 3 sources

1. 37c water bath expands the wax pattern.

2. Warm water entering investment mold from

the top adds some hygroscopic expansion.
3.Thermal expansion at 500c provides
needed thermal expansion.
113

HYGROSCOPIC LOW HEAT

TECHNIQUE

This tech was developed for alloys with high

gold content; newer noble alloys may require
slightly more expansion.

Which can be obtained by Increasing water bath temperature to

40c.
Using two layers of liners.
Increasing burnout temperature range of
600C to 650C.

114

HYGROSCOPIC LOW HEAT

TECHNIQUE
Advantages:

Less investment degradation

Smoother castings
Convenience of placing the molds
directly in 5000C furnace.

115

HYGROSCOPIC LOW HEAT

TECHNIQUE
Disadvantage:

Even though the mold is usually held at

this temp for 60-90 minutes - residual fine
carbon may be retained reduce venting
of the mold back pressure porosity.

This back pressure porosity is a greater hazardin low heat than high heat as investment in low
heat are more dense.

116

HIGH-HEAT THERMAL EXPANSION

TECHNIQUE

This approach depends almost entirely on

high-heat burnout to obtain the required
expansion and at the same time
eliminating the wax pattern.

Additional expansion is obtained from Expansion of pattern from heat produced

during setting.
Warm water entering the investment
from wet liner causing some hygroscopic
expansion.

117

Thus maintaining a higher temp for longer

periods may result in rough surface on
casting because of disintegration of
investment.

Hence after the casting temperature has

been reached, the casting should be
made immediately.

118

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS

The molds of GBI are placed in furnace at
room temperature and slowly heated to
650c to 700c in 60 minutes and held for
15 to 30 minute.

119

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS

Related problems Rapid heating - generate steam flaking of mold walls.
It
may also cause
cracking of
investment because outer layer of
investment expands thermally much
more than the centre sections ---- Non
uniform stress distribution --- cracks.

These crack appear from interior

outwardly in form of radial cracks
casting with fins or spines.
120

Too many patterns in the same plane can

cause separation of a whole section of the
investment, as the expanding wax creates
excessive pressure over a large area.

More common with cristoballite investmentlow inversion temp of cristoballite and rapid
rate of expansion during inversion( -
thus it should be heated slowly.

121

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS

SO2 production:
It occurs rapidly when GBI heated above
700c and reduction of calcium sulfate by
residual carbon takes place.
CaSo4 + 4C CaS +4CO
3CaSo4 + CaS 4CaO +4SO2

The produced SO2 contaminates gold

castings and makes them brittle.

122

GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENTS

Improved investment formulations : The desire for
rapid results has led to improved GBI investment
formulations which can be used with rapid
burnout procedure.

Place the mold in furnace at 3150 C for 30

minutes and followed with very rapid heating to
the final burnout temperature.
Or

Place the mold directly into furnace at final

burnout temperature- for 30 minutes and cast.
123

Phosphate bonded investment

investments obtain their expansion from
following sources:
1.

Expansion of wax pattern : because

setting reaction raises the mold
temperature substantially.

2.

Setting expansion: this is usually

higher than in gypsum bonded
because special liquids (silica sol) used
to enhance such expansion.

3.

Thermal expansion: higher because of

higher burnout temperature.
124

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

Usual burnout temperature range is from

750c to 1030c.

Heating rate is usually slow till 315 c and is

quite rapid thereafter, reaching completion
after a hold at the upper temperature for 30
minutes.

A total expansion of 2% or more is required

for alloys used to produce metal-ceramic
prosthesis, since gold based, palladium
based, and base metal alloys have higher
melting and solidification temperatures.
125

Time saving changes:

Some investments are available which can

withstand two stage heating more rapidly place directly in the furnace at top
temperature, held for 20-30 minutes and
then cast.

Elimination of the use of metal ring and

liner--- use plastic ring that is tapered so
that once the investment is set, it can be
pushed out of the ring, held for a specified
time to ensure complete setting and placed
directly into the hot furnace.
126

Casting machines

127

Methods of Melting the Alloys

1.

In a separate crucible by a torch

flame

2.

Electrically by a resistance heating or

induction furnace

3.

Melted by induction heating

4.

Vacuum arc melted

128

CASTING MACHINES
Several types and designs of casting
machines are used to make dental
castings. 7
All casting machines accelerate molten
metal into the mold either by
1. Air pressure or
2.

Centrifugal force.

129

Torch
melting/centrifugal
machine

casting

Casting machine spring is wound from

2-5 turns.

The alloy is melted by torch flame

in a glazed ceramic crucible attached to
the broken arm of the casting machine.

Torch flame generated from- gas

mixture of propane and air, natural gas
and air, acetylene and air, or acetylene
and
oxygen.
130

TORCH MELTING OF NOBLE METAL

ALLOY

This type of alloy is best melted by placing it

on the inner sidewall of the crucible.

In this position, the operator can better

observe the progress of the melting, and
there is a greater opportunity for any gases
in the flame to be reflected from the surface
of the alloy rather than being absorbed.

Considerable care should be taken to obtain a

nonluminous brush flame, with the different
combustion zones clearly differentiated.
131

Two types of non-luminous flame can be

obtained with casting torch
The upper flame should be employed for
fusing the noble metal alloy.
- The lower flame results from too much air in
the mixture.

The air supply for the lower flame is

excessive, and incomplete combustion and a
lower temperature will result.

132

PARTS OF FLAME
Zone 1: first long cone emanating directly
from the nozzle is the zone in which the
air and gas are mixed before combustion.

No heat is present in this zone.

Combustion zone

Zone 2 : combustion zone

Green
Immediately surrounding the inner cone.
Here, the gas and air are partially burned. This
zone is definitely oxidizing, and it should always
be kept away from the molten alloy during
fusion.
133

Zone 3: Reducing zone

located
just beyond the tip of the green
combustion zone.
Blue
This is the hottest part of the flame, and it should
be kept constantly on the alloy during melting.

Zone 4 : outer zone it is an area in which

combustion occurs with the oxygen in the air.
oxidizing zone
Not only is its temperature lower than that of the
reducing zone, but it also oxidizes the alloy.
Hence under no circumstances this
portion of the flame should be used to
melt the alloy.
Reducing zone
Oxidizing zone

134

OBJECTIVES OF CASTING

1) To heat the alloy as quickly as possible to

a completely molten condition.

2) To prevent oxidation, by heating the

metal with a well adjusted torch.

3) To produce a casting with sharp details

by having adequate pressure to the well
melted metal to force into the mold

Condition of the alloy surface determines whether

the proper zone of the flame is in contact with the
metal.

1.

When the reducing zone is in contact, the

surface of the gold alloy is bright and mirror
like.

2.

When the oxidizing portion of the flame is in

contact with the alloy, there is a dull film of
"dross" developed over the surface.

136

Care should be taken not to overheat the alloy.

Generally there are more chances of under

heating when the gas-air flame is used. The
alloy first appears to be spongy, and then small
globules of fused alloy appear. The molten alloy
soon assumes a spheroidal shape

At the proper casting temperature, the molten

alloy is light orange and tends to spin or
follow the flame when the latter is moved
slightly.

The casting should be made immediately when

the proper temperature is reached.
137

FLUX

It is desirable to use a flux for gold crown

and bridge alloys to aid in minimizing
porosity.

When properly used, the flux increases the

fluidity of the alloy, and the film of flux
formed on the surface of the molten alloy
helps prevent oxidation.

Although reducing fluxes like powdered

Charcoal are excellent for cleaning old
alloy, a better flux may be made from
equal parts of fused borax powder ground
with boric acid powder.

The flux is added when the alloy

is
138

CASTING TECHNIQUE
The mold is not removed from the burnout furnace
until the alloy has been melted and is ready to cast.
Noble metal alloys can be melted on a charcoal block
with a gas-air torch, which provides a reducing
atmosphere.

Metal-ceramic alloys can be melted at a higher

melting range with gas-oxygen torch.

Base metal alloys need a multiorifice gas-oxygen or

oxyacetylene torch.

Alloys from different manufacturers should not be

mixed, even if they are similar.
139

Sufficient mass of alloy must be present

to sustain adequate casting pressure.

With a high-density noble metal alloy, 6 g

(4 dwt*) is typically adequate for premolar
and anterior castings, 9 g (6 dwt) is
adequate for molar castings, and 12 g (8
dwt) is adequate for pontics.

*Pennyweight (d is an abbreviation for

denarius, a Roman copper coin).

140

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINES

141

CASTING PROCEDURE

A, Preheating the crucible. B, Making alloy melt. When the alloy is

molten, the casting ring is removed from the furnace and placed in the
cradle. C, Tongs are used to slide the crucible platform into contact with
the casting ring (arrow). D, The orifice of the crucible aligns with
the sprue.
142

-:Relation between the ceramic crucible used to

melt
the alloy and the casting ring
in a
centrifugal casting machine
Once alloy get molten , the metal is rapidly driven
centrifugally out of the crucible and into the mold in the
casting ring .it takes less than one second .The oxidized
elements and flux , which are less dense ,lag behind the
143

E, Heating continues for a few seconds so the melting is complete and

casting can proceed.
F, The casting machine is given three clockwise turns (four if using metalceramic alloys) and locked in position with the G, Casting machine
immediately before release.
H, Centrifugal force carries the molten alloy into the mold cavity (arrows
show the direction of spin).
144

As metal fills the mold, hydrostatic

pressure gradient develops along the
length of the casting.

Usually the pressure gradient at the

moment before solidification begins
,reaches about 0.21 to 0.28MPa at tip of
casting.

The machine is allowed to spin until it has

slowed enough that it can be stopped by
hand, and the ring is removed with casting
tongs.

145

Electrical resistance- heated

casting machine
Current is passed through a resistance
heating conductor and automatic melting of
the alloy occurs in a graphite or ceramic
crucible.

146

Advantage

1) for alloys used for metal-ceramic

prostheses, which are alloyed with
base metals in trace amounts that
tend to oxidize on overheating.

2) Crucible in the furnace is located

flush against the casting ring
therefore alloy button remains
molten
slightly
longer,
again
ensuring
that
solidification
progresses completely from the tip
of the casting to the button surface.

147

Induction melting
machine

Alloy is melted by an
induction
field
that
develops
within
a
crucible surrounded by
water
cooled
metal
tubing.

148

Electric induction furnace is

a transformer in which an
alternating current flows
through
the
primary
winding coil and generates
a variable magnetic field in
the location of the alloy to
be melted in a crucible.

Once alloy reaches casting

temperature in air or
vacuum, it is forced into
the mold by centrifugal
force, by air pressure or by
vacuum.
149

Direct current arc melting machine

The apparatus consist of two electrodes :

the alloy and the water cooled tungsten
electrode.

The contact between the electrode

terminal and the metal / alloy pellet
produces a direct-current arc which helps
in melting the alloy.
The temperature within the arc exceeds
4000" C, and the alloy melts very quickly.

This method has a high risk for

overheating the alloy, and damage
may result after only a few
seconds of prolonged heating.

150

Vacuum or pressure assisted casting

machine

Molten alloy heated to the casting

temperature, drawn into evacuated
mold by gravity or vacuum- subjected to
additional pressure to force the alloy
into the mold.

151

Recovery and Cleaning

of Casting

152

After the red glow has disappeared

from the button, the casting ring is
plunged under running cold water
into a large rubber mixing bowl.

Advantages:

The ring is quenched in

cold water in a plastic
bowl.

When water comes in contact

with hot investment, it becomes
granular and the casting is easily
cleaned.
Noble metal alloy is left in an
annealed
condition
for
burnishing and polishing.
153

Gypsum bonded investments

quickly disintegrate and residues can be

eliminated with a toothbrush.

Final
traces
ultrasonically.

Oxides are removed by pickling in 50%

hydrochloric acid.

can

be

removed

154

Phosphate bonded investments do not disintegrate and must be forcibly removed from
the casting ring
Also the particles usually include large grains of
quartz.

A, Trimming is done with knife from the button end of the ring.
B, Investment is being pushed out of the casting ring.
C, The mold is broken open. D, Investment is removed from the casting.
155
Care must be taken to avoid damaging the margin.

CLEANING OF CASTING

156

PICKLING

Removal of oxide residues of carbon by heating

the discoloured casting in an acid.
SOLUTIONS USED: 50% HCL, PHOSPHORIC
ACID, HYDROFLUORIC ACID

-Advantages of HCl:
Aids in removal of residual investment as well as oxide
coating
-Disadvantages:
Likely

to corrode laboratory metal furnishings

Fumes are health hazardious
157

Method of cleaning :
1. Place the casting in test tube or dish and
pour acid over it.
2. Other methods: heat the casting and then
drop it into the pickling solution .
Disadvantage: delicate margin may be
melted in the flame or the casting may be
distorted by the sudden thermal shock when
plunged into the acid.
3. Ultrasonic devices are useful for cleaning
the casting.

Method - the prosthesis is sealed in a Teflon

container and solution of sulfuric acid may be
used in this respect.
158

Castings made from Gold and palladium based

metal-ceramic alloys and base metal alloys are
generally not pickled .

When pickling is recommended for certain metalceramic alloys, it is only to selectively remove
specific surface oxides.

Gold containing alloys usually require ultrasonic

cleaner. But cold Hydrofluoric acid can also be
used to remove tenaciously adhered PBI from the
casting.

It dissolves the silica refractory quite well without

damage to gold and palladium based alloy.
159

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED: Casting should not be held with steel tongs.

REASON: The pickling solution usually contains

small amounts of copper dissolved from
previous castings.

When the steel tongs contact this electrolyte, a

small galvanic cell is created and copper is
deposited on the casting at the point where the
tongs grip it.

This copper deposition extends into the alloy

and is a future source for discoloration in the
area.
160

After pickling break off as much of the

investment as possible by hand or with an
old instrument and then scrub the casting
and button with a stiff brush.

The casting should appear smooth, with a

dull, dark oxide layer.

Remove the oxide layer and any remaining

particles
of
investment
by
lightly
sandblasting all surfaces with a 50micrometer abrasive.
161

SAND BLASTING

Castings made from base metal

alloys are held in an sand blasting
machine to clean the investment
from the surface.

The blasting materials used

are:
Sand shells
Recycled Aluminium oxide with
pressure of 100psi
Garnet
Ultrasonic cleaners
Abrasive spray devices

Chromium-based partial dentures

are usually sandblasted to remove
the investment.

162

ACCELERATED CASTING
TECHNIQUE
Conventional casting techniques require
considerable time, typically 1 hour bench
set for the investment and 1 to 2 hours for
the wax elimination.
Accelerated casting procedures have been
proposed that reduce this time to 30 to 40
minutes .
this procedure has been found to produce
castings with accuracy and surface
roughness similar to traditional methods.
163

1. Invest the pattern in a phosphate-bonded

investment (Ceramigold, Whip Mix Corp,
Louisville, KY) using a ring liner and standard
special liquid dilution of 50/50.
2. Allow the investment to harden for 12 to 15
minutes. It should feel firm and warm.
3. Place the invested pattern directly into a
1,300F (705C) oven and allow 12 to 15
minutes for burnout.
4. Cast in gold alloy (type II or III for inlays, type
III or IV for dowel cores).
In this way, investment, burnout, and casting
164
can be completed in 1 hour, saving the patient

CASTING DEFECTS

165

INTRODUCTION

Casting procedure is a technique sensitive

procedure. Proper sequence of all steps is
essential for obtaining correct casting.

If proper procedure is not followed, then

casting may have some defects. The
casting in such cases may not fit properly
or it may have poor aesthetic & mechanical
properties.

An unsuccessful casting results in

considerable trouble and loss of time.

a
166

CAUSES OF DEFECTIVE CASTING

CASTING DEFECTS (according to phillips)

DISTORTION

SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND IRREGULARITIES

POROSITY

SURFACE DISCOLORATION

INCOMPLETE OR MISSING DETAILS

167

Wax distortion is the most serious problem that can

occur during the forming and removal of the pattern

DISTORTION
DISTORTION

from the mouth or die.

168

DISTORTION

Distortion of the casting due to distortion of

wax pattern which usually occurs when the
investment hardens around it.
or

The setting or hygroscopic expansion of

investment

nonuniform expansion of the walls of the

pattern.

Gingival margins are forced apart by mold

expansion.
169

The configuration of the pattern, the type of wax,

and the thickness influence the distortion.

Distortion increases as thickness of pattern

decreases.
Reason : thinner pattern can be more readily heated
and moved by the investment leading to expansion.
Less the setting expansion of investment, less is the
distortion.

Some distortion of wax occurs during manipulation,

because of the release of internal stresses.

170

DISTORTION
Minimize distortion by :
1.
2.
3.

Proper manipulation of wax and

handling of pattern.
Investing pattern within one hour
after finishing.
If storage is necessary, store the
pattern in refrigerator.

171

SURFACE ROUGHNESS,
IRREGULARITIES AND DISCOLORATION
Surface roughness is defined
as relatively finely spaced
surface imperfections, whose
height, width and direction
establish the predominant
surface pattern.

Surface
irregularities
are
isolated imperfections, such
as nodules, that are not
characteristic of the entire
surface area.
172

The surface of a dental casting should be an

accurate reproduction of the surface of the
wax pattern from which it is made.

Excessive roughness or irregularities on the

cavity surface prevent a proper seating of an
accurate casting.

173

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

OTHER CAUSES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

High L/P
Highratio
L/P
ratio

Prolonged
Prolonged
heating or
heating
or
over heating
over
of heating
the mold
of the mold

Surface
Surface
roughness
roughness

Premature
Premature
heating of
heating
of
investment
investment

Excess
Excess
wetting
wetting
agent
agent

174

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

EXCESS L/P RATIO

Excess L/P ratio

Increased amount of excess water

Large number of porosities in the

investment

Rough casting
175

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

PROLONGED HEATING OF THE MOLD

Prolonged heating of the mold cause disintegration of
gypsum bonded investment.
As a result, walls of the mold are roughened.

REMEDY :
When thermal expansion technique is employed, the
mold should be heated to casting temperature never
higher and the casting should be made immediately.
Generalized casting roughness may indicate a breakdown of
. the investment from excessive burnout temperature.

176

SURFACE IRREGULARITIES

177

SURFACE IRREGULARITIES:
These are isolated imperfections such as nodules that are not
characteristic ofthe entire surface area.

Surface
Surface
irregularities
irregularities

Nodules
Nodules
Waterfilms
films
Water
Fins
Fins

178

1. NODULES

179

TYPES OF NODULES

Small
Small

Nodules
Nodules
Large
Large
nodules
nodules

Multiple
Multiple
nodules
nodules
180

SMALL NODULES
Small air bubbles can become attached to
the pattern during or following the
investing procedure. During the casting,
the bubble is filled with the casting
material (alloy) and is manifested as a
nodule (small).
These nodules if present on the margins
or on internal surface might alter the fit of
the casting, if removal of these
irregularities is attempted.
But if they are present in some noncritical area they can be removed easily.

181

SMALL NODULES

REMEDY:
The best method to eliminate the
incorporation of air in the casting
investment is
i) By mixing under vacuum.
ii) By using wetting agents.

Wetting agent should be applied in thin layer and

air-dried because any excess liquid dilutes the
investment, possibly producing surface roughness.

182

SMALL NODULES

Castings with phosphate bonded

investments are more prone to such
imperfections.
They can be removed with or
round bur.

A binocular microscope is extremely helpful in

detecting and removing them.

183

LARGE NODULES

MULTIPLE NODULES

Inadequate vacuum during

investing
Improper brush technique.

Lack of surfactant

Produced by air trapped

during investing
procedure

184

2. WATER FILMS

185

Wax is repellent to water, if the investment

becomes separated from the wax pattern in some
manner, a water film may form irregularly over the
surface.
This type of irregularity appears as minute ridges
or veins on the surface.

Water film
Water film
Space around the wax
Space around the wax
pattern
pattern
186

THIS CONDITION OCCURS:-

REMEDY:
Use of Surfactant helps prevent such irregularities
187

3. FINS

188

Fins

occur

when

cracks

are

produced

in

the

investment that radiate out from the surface of the

pattern .
Molten alloy flows into the cracks forming thin fins
on the casting.

Significance :
Finning increases the time required for to finish the
casting and if the defects occur in critical areas (e.g.
near the crown shoulder) can result in a need to re-

189

REASONS THAT PRODUCE FINS

Weak mix of
Weak mix of
the
the
investment
investment

Too rapid
Too rapid
heating
heating

Improper
Improper
positioning of
positioning of
the pattern
the pattern

FINS
FINS

Excessive
Excessive
casting force
casting force

Premature
Premature
heating
heating

Cooling of
Cooling of
investment
investment
prior to
prior to
casting
casting

190

FINS

a.

1.PATTERN POSITION
Positioning of several patterns too
close and in the same plane in the
mold lead to formation of fins.
Reason : The expansion of the wax is
much greater than that of the
investment, causing breakdown or
cracking of the investment if the
spacing between patterns is less than
3mm.

191

b. Patterns placed too near the edge of

the investment causes fins.

FINS

Reason
If too little investment covers the wax
patterns, the alloy is more likely to break
through the mold.
c. Too much investment over the wax ups
may locate the wax patterns too close to
the heat centre of the mold and impair
the escape of gases.
192

Remedy: Proper positioning of the wax pattern.

Remedy: Proper positioning of the wax pattern.
The casting ring should permit the patterns to be 3- 6 mm apart.
The casting ring should permit the patterns to be 3- 6 mm apart.
6mm from the top of the investment.
6mm from the top of the investment.
Minimum 9mm of investment between them and the ring liner.
Minimum 9mm of investment between them and the ring liner.
193

2a. RAPID HEATING RATES

Too high heating rate of investment outside
layer becomes hot faster than the inner layer.

FINS

Outside layer tends to expand more than the

inner parts.
Outside layer is subject to compressive
stresses, while the inner part is subject to
tensile stresses.
Since the investment is a brittle material, it
tends to crack under tensile stresses.

During casting, these cracks are filled by the

casting alloy, manifesting as fins or spines.

194

2b.Rapid heating rates

FINS

A characteristic surface roughness may be

evident because of the flaking of the
investment when the water/ steam pours
into the mold.

Remedy
Remedy
Ideally, 60 min should elapse during the heating of the
Ideally, 60 min should elapse during the heating of the
investment filled ring from room temperature to 700 C.
investment filled ring from room temperature to 700 C.
The greater the bulk of the investment, the more slow it
The greater the bulk of the investment, the more slow it
195
should be heated.
should be heated.

3. PREMATURE HEATING

If setting is not complete at the time a ring is

placed in the oven, the mold may be weak and

FINS

unable to withstand steam pressure during

burnout.
Investment could fracture as a consequence.

Remedy:
Remedy:

Burnout should be initiated only after the

Burnout should be initiated only after the
recommended setting time.
recommended setting time.

196

4. LIQUID-POWDER RATIO

FINS

The higher the liquid/powder ratio, the

rougher the casting (the investment
becomes weak and develop cracks).
If too little water is used the investment
unmanageably thick cannot be properly
applied to the pattern
in vacuum
investing and air may not be sufficiently
removed leading to back pressure
porosity.

REMEDY
REMEDY

Correct proportion of powder to liquid and any dilution of

Correct proportion of powder to liquid and any dilution of
the (special) liquid with distilled water should be
the (special) liquid with distilled water should be
established for each alloy.
established for each alloy.

197

5. CASTING PRESSURE
Too high pressure during casting causes
molten alloy to strike at weak point of the

FINS

mold leading to crack the investment and

ultimately produce fins.
REMEDY
REMEDY
Casting should provide enough force to cause
Casting should provide enough force to cause
the liquid alloy to flow onto the heated mold
the liquid alloy to flow onto the heated mold
Adjust
the
casting
machine
to
the
Adjust
the
casting
machine
to
the
requirements of each alloy. Lower-density
requirements of each alloy. Lower-density
metals generally need four winds of a
metals generally need four winds of a
centrifugal casting arm as compared to highercentrifugal casting arm as compared to higherdensity, gold based alloys. Don't over wind.
density, gold based alloys. Don't over wind.
A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air
A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air
pressure casting machine is sufficient.
pressure casting machine is sufficient.

198

POROSITIES

199

POROSITY

Internal or external

Effects of porosity:
Weakens the casting
Discoloration
If severe, it can produce leakage at
the tooth restoration interface, and
secondary caries may result.

200

I. Solidification
Localized shrinkage
porosity
Suck-back porosity
Micro-porosity

II. Trapped gases

III. Residual air

Pinhole porosity

Back pressure

Gas inclusion

porosity

Subsurface porosity

201

I.POROSITIES DUE TO METAL

SOLIDIFICATION

202

1. LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

(SHRINK-SPOT POROSITY)
When noble metal alloys changes from liquid to solid
state they show a linear contraction of 1.25%,
which is compensated by continuous flow of the metal

from the reservoir till the metal in the casting

completely solidifies.
Therefore continued feeding ofmolten metal through
the sprue must occur to compensate for casting
shrinkage i.e. shrinkage during solidification.
(Insufficient feeding causes porosity)
It usually occurs if the sprue solidifies before the
casting
Cause:
Premature termination of the flow of metal
during solidification.

203

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY MAINLY OCCURS

WHERE SOLIDIFICATION OCCURS LAST.

204

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Solidifies later
Solidifies later

Solidifies last
Solidifies last

Remedy: use of
Remedy: use of
reservoir
reservoir
Alloy that fills the
restoration will solidify
first.

Solidifies first
Solidifies first

Solidifies last
Solidifies last

As the molten metal

solidifies, it shrinks and
creates a vacuum

Solidifies later
Solidifies later
Solidifies first
Solidifies first

Vacuum will draw

additional metal from
an adjacent source 205
The reservoir.

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

It usually occurs
casting junction.

near

the

sprue-

And may occur anywhere between

dendrites, where the last portion of
the casting to solidify, mainly the
bulkiest portion of the casting, i.e. the
sprue pattern junction.

206

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

REMEDY # 1

Attach the large reservoir in the sprue of thickness

Attach the large reservoir in the sprue of thickness
more than the thickest portion of the pattern and as
more than the thickest portion of the pattern and as
close as possible to the pattern (1mm)
close as possible to the pattern (1mm)
207

Sprue base former

Sprue base former

Sprue
Sprue

Wax pattern
Wax pattern

Investment Material
Investment Material

208

Thickness of
Thickness of
sprue
sprue

Maximum
Maximum
thickness of
thickness of
pattern
pattern

Last to solidify
Last to solidify
Thickness of
Thickness of
sprue
sprue

Maximum
Maximum
thickness of
thickness of
pattern
pattern
209

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

REMEDY # 2

Position the wax pattern in a cold zone of the

Position the wax pattern in a cold zone of the
investment mold and the reservoir in the heat centre
investment mold and the reservoir in the heat centre
of the casting ring.
of the casting ring.

210

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

The coolest parts of the mold (cold

zones) are the end of the ring and
along the ring periphery.
The hottest portion of the casting ring
is located near the centre of the ring
(heat centre).
Limit the amount of investment
covering the patterns to not more than
inch (6mm) & position the reservoir
in the heat centre.
So the proper length of sprue is
important to keep the pattern away
from heat centre close to the end of

211

REMEDY # 3
Use Gate Method Of Spruing
Need for this technique:
Generally the alloy immediately
adjacent to the walls of the mold
solidifies first,

The exposed surface of the button

solidifies second, and

The alloy internal to the mold will cool

last.

Porosity occurs in the portion of the

casting that cools last.
212

o In the gate sprue technique, the spruing

arrangement provide a bulk (or reservoir)
of metal for entire casting.
o The runner bar is positioned at the heat
center of the investment mold hence it
will solidify in the last.

o It also allows even distribution of the

alloy to all parts of the casting to
minimize porosity and will contain
porosity.

213

REMEDY # 4.
Flaring
Allows even flow of the metal into
mold and therefore less porosity
Also

acts as reservoir, and allows

continuous feeding of the molten
alloy.

214

SUCK - BACK POROSITY

2. SUCK - BACK (HOT-SPOT)POROSITY

Localized shrinkage porosity resulting

from the formation of HOT SPOT when
the metal impinges the mold surface so
that here the metal is melted while it
solidifies everywhere else.

This hot spot creates a local region

which freeze last resulting in suck back
porosity.

215

Localized shrinkage may also occur in the

fitting surface ofthe crown near the area of
the sprue.
Occurs often on occlusoaxial / incisoaxial line
angles that are not well rounded.
Also occurs when the sprue is attached at
right angles to the pattern.

216

Correct sequence of solidification of an alloy in

the investment mold of a full cast crown .The
button should freeze last. This order allows the
molten metal to compensate for the shrinkage
when such increment of metal goes from the
liquid to solid state
217

Incorrect solidification sequence that results in

suck back porosity. The sprue area freezes
before the cusp area of the crown and the
metal in the crown had to feed the shrinking
alloy, causing a void in the crown.
218

Hot spot
Hot spot

Pathways for the flow of

metal should be smooth,
gradual,
and
without
impediments.

Eliminate
sharp
turns,
points, or impingements that
might create turbulence and
occlude air in the casting.
219

REMEDY 1
Flare the point of sprue attachment.
Impedance to flow
Impedance to flow

SUCK - BACK POROSITY

90

Sprue former
Sprue former

Continuity of flow
Continuity of flow
45

Sprue former
Sprue former

Maximum

impedance to
flow occurs
when a Sprue
former makes
an angle of
90 to the
pattern.

The

pattern
should be
placed at 45
220

REMEDY 2
Reduce
the mold melt
differential (i.e.; lowering
temperature by about 300C)

temperature
the casting

REMEDY 3
Y shaped sprue - half of the molten alloy
enters through both side, therefore the
temperature of the investment does not
rise under the sprue at a particular point.

221

3. MICRO-POROSITY
Micro-porosity voids are irregular in shape.
These voids occur from rapid solidification,
ifmold or casting temperature is too low. This
defect is not detectable unless casting is
sectioned.

Note : Occurs from solidification shrinkage

222

4. SUBSURFACE POROSITY
When the molten metal comes in contact with
the low temperature mold, the outer layer
coming in contact with the mold wall solidifies
suddenly and makes a skin of solid metal which
is tenaciously adherent to the mold wall. When
the inner layer shrinks ,the outer covering of
solid metal cannot be dragged along with it.
This leads to subsurface porosity.

223

II. POROSITIES DUE TO

TRAPPED GASES
(Gaseous porosity)
224

INTRODUCTION TO GASEOUS POROSITY

Gas or air enter within the molten alloy by either
chemical reaction or physical mechanism.

Chemical entrapment
E.g.

Gases may be produced by reaction of the

liquid metal with volatile substances, such as
moisture in the mold.

Physical entrapment
Mechanically

trapped gas.

E.g.

Air may be entrapped in the casting by the

sudden rush of metal during pouring. Since the
gases are generally more soluble in liquid state of
metal than solid, dissolved gases may be
liberated during solidification.

225

GASEOUS POROSITY

On cooling, the alloys liberate these trapped

gases.
But some remain trapped when the alloy
becomes rigid.
This type of porosity may affect all parts of the
casting.
Types of gaseous porosity
Gaseous
porosity

PINHOLE
POROSITY

GAS
INCLUSION
POROSITY

Note: Both these porosities are related to the entrapment ofgas

during solidification and are characterized by spherical contour but
size is varied i.e. gas inclusion larger in size compared to pinhole.

226

GASEOUS POROSITY

Remedy
Remedy
Sprue
Sprue

Molten metal
Molten metal

1. Avoid
overheating of
the alloy (SO2

Displaced air
Displaced air

liberation in
case of GBI)
2. Casting in the
atmosphere of

Sprue
Sprue

Molten metal
Molten metal

an inert gas or
vacuum.
3. Avoid using
large sprues.

Trapped air
Trapped air

227

PINHOLE POROSITY
Many metals dissolve or occlude gases in
their molten state e.g. both copper and silver
dissolve O2 in large amount in liquid state.
Molten platinum and palladium have a strong
affinity for hydrogen as well as oxygen.
On solidification of metal absorbed gases are
expelled resulting in pinhole porosities.

228

PIN HOLE POROSITY

NOTE :
All castings contain certain amount of
porosity, but they should be kept
minimum as they will adversely affect
the physical properties of the casting.
Castings
that
are
severely
contaminated with gases are usually
black when removed and do not clean
easily on pickling.

229

GAS INCLUSION POROSITY

The larger spherical voids are caused by gas

that is mechanically trapped by the molten
metal in the mold or by gas that is
incorporated during the casting procedure.
The gas could be occluded from poorly
adjusted torch flame or by use of mixing or
oxidizing zone of flame rather than reducing
zone.

230

Prevention:
Premelting the gold alloy on graphite
crucible or a graphite block, if the alloy has
been used before.

Correctly adjusting and positioning

the torch flame during melting.

231

232

GAS INCLUSION POROSITY

III. POROSITIES DUE TO

RESIDUAL AIR

233

INTRODUCTION

Air present in the mold cavity pushed is out by

molten metal.

Presence of air in the cavity will not allow the

metal to flow Air in mold escape by
By pressure gradient
Escape through pores in the investment

234

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

Back pressure affects are caused by
an inability of air or other gases within
the mould to escape, making a way
for the alloy.
EXPLANATION :
As the liquid enters the mould through
the sprue, the air trapped in the
mould
is
compressed
at
the
extremities, which can exert back
pressure preventing the alloy liquid to
occupy this region
It is seen on inner surface of casting
and can produce large concave

235

Note : A casting which has been subjected

to back pressure is rounded at the edges and
lacking in detail

Rounded edges due to

back pressure
236

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

CAUSES OF RESIDUAL AIR

Dense modern
Dense
modern
investment
investment

Clogging of
Clogging
of
mold with
mold
with
residual
residual
carbon
carbon

Trapped
Trapped
air
air

Inadequate
Inadequate
casting and
casting
and
mould
mould
temperature
temperature

Increased
Increased
distance
distance
between
between
pattern and
pattern
and
end of casting
end of ring.
casting
ring.

237

FACTOR # I. DENSE MODERN INVESTMENT

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

Increased density Inadequate porosity in the

investment to vent out trapped air.

Investment materials in the increasing order of density

and decreasing order of porosity.

Gypsum bonded

Silica bonded

Phosphate
bonded

Density of the material may increase with vacuum

mixing and low L/P ratio.
Note: Silica bonded and phosphate bonded materials
very frequently produce incomplete castings.

238

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

REMEDY I

When using silica bonded or fine grained phosphate

When using silica bonded or fine grained phosphate
bonded investments, a vent sprue former , 0.5 mm
bonded investments, a vent sprue former , 0.5 mm
in diameter, should be provided to allow escape of
in diameter, should be provided to allow escape of
gases towards the crucible end of the mold.
gases towards the crucible end of the mold.

239

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

REMEDY II

The end of the ring should not be completely

The end of the ring should not be completely
covered by any part of the casting apparatus.
covered by any part of the casting apparatus.
In all cases the plate of metal that supports the
In all cases the plate of metal that supports the
end of the ring should be perforated .
end of the ring should be perforated .
Dense layer of investment material is often
Dense layer of investment material is often
created at the base of the ring, particularly
created at the base of the ring, particularly
when the base of the ring has been closed
when the base of the ring has been closed
temporarily by a sheet of metal or glass. This
temporarily by a sheet of metal or glass. This
dense layer should scraped away to facilitate
dense layer should scraped away to facilitate
the escape of gases.
the escape of gases.

240

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

FACTOR #2. INCREASED DISTANCE BETWEEN PATTERN

AND END OF CASTING RING

Even though, Gypsum bonded investment

is porous, if the thickness of investment at
the extremity of pattern is more than 6mm
the porosity becomes less effective.

Remedy :
Remedy :
To assist the escape of gases, the investment materials
To assist the escape of gases, the investment materials
between the casting and end of the ring should be as
between the casting and end of the ring should be as
thin and is consistent with strength.
thin and is consistent with strength.

241

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

METHOD TO ENHANCE VENTING OF GASES

242

BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

3.

FACTOR #3. CLOGGING OF MOLD WITH

RESIDUAL CARBON
It is advisable to begin the burnout
procedure while the mould is still wet.
Water trapped in the pores of the
investment reduces the absorption of
wax.
As the water vaporizes it flushes wax
from the mold.
243

OTHER REMEDIES

Adequate casting pressure i.e, 0.10 to

0.14 Mpa.
Adequate mold and casting temperature
Proper burnout
Proper l/p ratio

244

INCOMPLETE CASTING
It is due to inadequate amount of molten metal
entering the mould.

245

REASONS OF INCOMPLETE CASTING

Incomplete
Incomplete
melting of
melting of
alloy
alloy
Insufficient
Insufficient
alloy
alloy

Blocking
Blocking
due to pre
due
to pre in
solidification
solidification
sprue in
sprue

Incomplete
Incomplete
dewaxing
dewaxing

Too low
Too low
casting force
casting force

Incomplete
casting

Blocking of sprue
Blocking
due of
to sprue
loose
dueinvestment
to loose
investment
particles
particles

Poor
Poor
castability
castability

246

INCOMPLETE CASTING

REASON 1
INSUFFICIENT VENTING OF MOLD:Directly related to back pressure exerted
by the air in mold.
If insufficient casting pressure is applied
the back pressure cannot be overcome,
therefore pressure should be applied for 4
seconds. (The mold is filled and the alloy
solidifies in 1sec, yet it is quite soft during
early stages therefore pressure should be
maintained for few seconds beyond this
point).

247

INCOMPLETE CASTING

REASON 2
INCOMPLETE ELIMINATION OF WAX
RESIDUE:-
If too many products of combustion
remain in the mold, the pores of the
investment become clogged and air
cannot be vented properly.
Contact of molten metal with wax or
moisture produces an explosion that may
produce sufficient back pressure to
prevent the mold from being filled.
Castings seen are generally shiny with
rounded defects.

248

INCOMPLETE CASTING

REASON 3
HIGH VISCOSITY OF FUSED METALS

An incomplete casting resulting from too

great a viscosity is attributed to
insufficient heating.

Temperature of the alloy should be raised

higher than its liquidus temperature so
that its viscosity and surface tension are
lowered and so that it does not solidify
prematurity as it enters the mold.
249

INCOMPLETE CASTING

OTHER REASONS
4. Inadequate metal.
5. Cool mold or melt
6. Too thin Wax pattern

250

SURFACE DISCOLORATION

251

SURFACE DISCOLORATION

PROLONGED HEATING OF THE MOLD

When high heat casting technique is used
prolonged heating of the mold cause
disintegration
of
gypsum
bonded
investment
and
products
of
decomposition are sulphur compounds
that contaminate the alloy to the extent
that surface texture is affected. Such
contamination do not respond to pickling.

252

SURFACE DISCOLORATION

Surface discoloration also results from high

sulphur content of flame torch.
Interaction of molten alloy with sulphur
black/Grey layer on the surface of gold
alloys that is brittle and doesn't clean
readily during pickling.

Remedy :
When thermal expansion technique is
Remedy :
When thermal expansion technique is
employed, the mold should be heated to casting
employed, the mold should be heated to casting
temperature never higher and the casting should be
temperature never higher and the casting should be
made immediately.
made immediately.

253

SURFACE DISCOLORATION

CARBON INCLUSIONS
CARBON CAN BE OBTAINED FROM:
A crucible (carbon)
An improperly adjusted torch
Carbon-containing investment
It can be absorbed by the alloy during
casting and may lead to formation of
carbides, carbon monoxide or even create
visible carbon inclusions.

254

CONCLUSION

Casting is a very important procedure for

fixed partial prosthesis or removable
partial prosthesis. For casting different
materials and methods are available. Two
types of casting techniques are used, one
is centrifugal and other is air pressure
type. Casting is very technique sensitive.
If any step goes wrong then casting will
be defective.

255

REFERENCES
1.

The glossary of prosthodontic terms. J Prosthet Dent 2005;

94(1)

2.

Rosenstiel SF, Land MF, Fujimoto J. Contemporary fixed

prosthodontics. 3rd ed. Missouri: Mosby. 2001.

3.

O Brien WJ. Dental materials and their selection.

4.

Murrow RM, Rudd KD and Eissmann HF. Dental laboratory

procedures- fixed partial dentures. St. Louis: Mosby. 1980.

256

5.

Anusavice KJ. Philips Science of Dental

Materials.11th ed. Floirda: W.B. Saunders Co. 1999

6.

Shillingburg HT, Jacobi R, Brackett SE.

Fundamentals of tooth preparations for cast metal &
porcelain restorations. 1st ed. Carol stream.
Qintessence Publishing Co. Inc. 1991.

7.

Craig RG. Restorative Dental Materials. 8th ed. St

Louis: CV Mosby Co.1989.

257