Physiology of

autonomic nervous
system

Autonomic Nervous System

2 divisions:
Sympathetic
Fight or flight
E division
Exercise,
excitement,
emergency, and
embarrassment
Parasympathetic
Rest and digest
D division
Digestion,
defecation, and
diuresis

Function

Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function

in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed
complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an
analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the
accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The
sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring
quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with
actions that do not require immediate reaction. Consider
sympathetic as "fight or flight" and parasympathetic as "rest
and digest".

Autonomic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system: sympathetic trunks (

white ramus communicans, gray ramus communicans) collateral ganglia
cavernous plexus - cervical ganglia: (superior, middle,
inferior) - splanchnic nerves: (thoracic, lumbar, sacral) ganglion impar
internal carotid - cardiac
celiac: celiac ganglia - aorticorenal - renal - spermatic/ovarian
- superior mesenteric - aortic plexus - inferior mesenteric hepatic - splenic - gastric - pancreatic - suprarenal
hypogastric: superior hypogastric - inferior hypogastric vesical - prostatic - uterovaginal
parasympathetic nervous system: ciliary ganglion (
short ciliary nerves) - pterygopalatine ganglion (
nerve of pterygoid canal) - submandibular ganglion otic ganglion - pelvic splanchnic

Receptors

The parasympathetic nervous system uses only

acetylcholine (ACh) as its neurotransmitter. The ACh
acts on two types of receptors, the muscarinic and
nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Most transmissions
occur in two stages: When stimulated, the
preganglionic nerve releases ACh at the ganglion,
which acts on nicotinic receptors of the
postganglionic nerve. The postganglionic nerve then
releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of
the target organ.

Neurotransmitters and pharmacology

At the effector organs, sympathetic ganglionic neurons release

noradrenaline (norepinephrine) to act on adrenergic receptors ,
with the exception of the sweat glands and the adrenal
medulla:
At sweat glands, the neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, which
acts on muscarinic receptors .
At the adrenal cortex, there is no postsynapic neuron. Instead
the presynaptic neuron releases acetylcholine to act on
nicotinic receptors .
Stimulation of the adrenal medulla releases adrenaline
(epinephrine) into the bloodstream which will act on
adrenoceptors, producing a widespread increase in sympathetic
activity.
In the parasympathetic system, ganglionic neurons use
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter, to stimulate
muscarinic receptors.

Sympathetic (adrenergic, with

exceptions)

cardiac output increases

SA node: heart rate (chronotropic)1, 2: increases
cardiac muscle: contractility (inotropic)1, 2: increases
conduction at AV node1: increases
vascular smooth muscle M3: contracts; = contracts; 2 = relaxes
smooth muscles of bronchioles2: relaxes (major contribution); 1:
contracts (minor contribution)
pupil of eye1: relaxes
ciliary muscle2: relaxes
salivary glands: secretions: stimulates viscous, amylase secretions; 1 =
stimulates potassium cation
smooth muscles of GI tract, 2: relaxes
sphincters of GI tract1: contracts
glands of GI tractinhibits

Parasympathetic (muscarinic)

cardiac output M2: decreases

SA node: heart rate (chronotropic) M2: decreases
cardiac muscle: contractility (inotropic) M2: decreases (atria
only)
conduction at AV node M2: decreases
smooth muscles of bronchioles M3: contracts
pupil of eye M3: contracts
ciliary muscle M3: contracts
salivary glands: secretions stimulates watery secretions
GI tract motility M1, M3: increases
smooth muscles of GI tract M3: contracts
sphincters of GI tract M3: relaxes
glands of GI tract M3: secretes

Autonomic regulation & stress

A stressful situation activates three major communication

systems in the brain that regulate bodily functions.
The first of these systems is the voluntary nervous system,
which sends messages to muscles so that we may respond to
sensory information.
The second communication system is the autonomic nervous
system. It combines the sympathetic or emergency branch,
which gets us going in emergencies, and the parasympathetic
or calming branch, which keeps the bodys maintenance
systems, such as digestion, in order and calms the bodys
responses to the emergency branch.
The brains third major communication process is the
neuroendocrine system, which also maintains the bodys
internal functioning.

Each of these systems has a specific task

The emergency branch causes arteries supplying blood to the

muscles to relax in order to deliver more blood, allowing greater
capacity to act. At the same time, the emergency system reduces
blood flow to the skin, kidneys, and digestive tract and increases
blood flow to the muscles.
In contrast, the calming branch helps to regulate bodily functions
and soothe the body once the stressor has passed, preventing the
body from remaining too long in a state of mobilization. Left
mobilized and unchecked, these body functions could lead to
disease. Some actions of the calming branch appear to reduce the
harmful effects of the emergency branchs response to stress.
Various stress hormones travel through the blood and stimulate
the release of other hormones, which affect bodily processes such
as metabolic rate and sexual functions.

THE STRESS REACTION

When stress occurs, the
sympathetic nervous system is
triggered. Norepinephrine is
released by nerves, and
epinephrine is secreted by the
adrenal glands. By activating
receptors in blood vessels and
other structures, these
substances ready the heart and
working muscles for action.
Acetylcholine is released in the
parasympathetic nervous
system, producing calming
effects. The digestive tract is
stimulated to digest a meal, the
heart rate slows, and the pupils
of the eyes become smaller. The
neuroendocrine system also
maintains the bodys normal
internal functioning.

Chronic stress

When glucocorticoids or adrenaline are secreted in

response to the prolonged psychological stress
commonly encountered by humans, the results are not
ideal. Normally, bodily systems gear up under stress and
release hormones to improve memory, increase immune
function, enhance muscular activity, and restore
homeostasis. If you are not fighting or fleeing, but
standing frustrated in a supermarket checkout line or
sitting in a traffc jam, you are not engaging in muscular
exercise.
Yet these systems continue to be stimulated, and when
they are stimulated chronically, there are different
consequences: Memory is impaired, immune function is
suppressed, and energy is stored as fat.

Response to stress