1

Principles of Sound

vibrations that travel through the air or another

medium and can be heard when they reach a
person's or animal's ear.
A mechanical vibration
The vibrations create Pressure Waves
Sound travels faster in more elastic materials
Sound propagates through air, water and solids
as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse
waves in solids

The speed of sound is the distance travelled

per unit time by a sound wave propagating
through an elastic medium. The SI unit of the
speed of sound is the meter per second (m/s). In
dry air at 20 C, the speed of sound is 343.2
meters per second
It travels about 4.3 times as fast in water (1,484
m/s), and nearly 15 times as fast in iron (5,120
m/s), as in air at 20 C

Wavelength :
The distance required to complete a
cycle
Measured in Meter or mm

Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per second (cps)

Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
Measured in meter / second (m / sec)

vibrating solids
rapid expansion or compression (explosions and
implositons).
Smooth (laminar) air flow around blunt obstacles
may result in the formation of vortices (the plural
of vortex) that snap off or shed with a
characteristic frequency. This process is called
vortex shedding and is another means by which
sound waves are formed. This is how a whistle
or flute produces sound

As with any wave the speed of sound depends on the

medium in which it is propagating.
Sound generally travels faster in solids and liquids than in
gases.
The speed of sound is faster in materials that have some
stiffness like steel and slower in softer materials like
rubber.
The speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s
(about 1,200 kph or 700 mph).
It increases with temperature.
Determining the Distance to a Lightning Bolt: Sound
waves take approximately 5 seconds to travel 1 mile.
Using this information, it is possible to measure one's
distance from a lightning bolt.

solids

v(m/s)

liquids

v(m/s)

aluminum

6420

alcohol, ethyl

1207

brass

4700

mercury

1450

copper

4760

water, distilled

1497

iron

5950

water, sea

1531

silver

3650

gases (STP)

v (m/s)

steel, mild

5960

air, 000

331

titanium

6070

air, 020

343

wood, ash

4670

hydrogen (H2)

1284

biological
materials

v (m/s)

soft tissues

1540

nitrogen
oxygen (O2)

334
316

Wavelength

Velocity

f
Frequency

Sound cannot
travel in vacuum
Sound energy to be
transmitted /
transferred from
one particle to
another

SOLID

LIQUID

GAS

The velocity of sound in a particular material is

CONSTANT
It is the product of DENSITY and ELASTICITY of the
material
It will NOT change if frequency changes
Only the wavelength changes
Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water
: 1470 m/s
V Compression in air
: 330 m/s

5 M Hz

STEEL

WATER

AIR

Sound : mechanical
vibration

What is Ultrasonic?
Very High Frequency sound 20 KHz to several GHz

Frequency :

1 second

Number of cycles per

second

1 second

1 second

1 cycle per 1
3 cycle per 1
18 cycle per 1
second = 1 Hertz
second = 3 Hertz
second = 18
THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER
THE
Hertz
WAVELENGTH

Pg
21

1 Hz
= 1 cycle per second
1 Kilohertz = 1 KHz
= 1000Hz
1 Megahertz
= 1 MHz = 1000
000Hz

20 KHz =

20 000 Hz

5 M Hz =

5 000 000 Hz

ULTRASONIC TESTING
Very High Frequency
5 M Hz

Glass
High
Frequency
DRUM BEAT
Low Frequency Sound
40 Hz

5 K Hz

The higher the frequency the smaller

the wavelength
The smaller the wavelength the
higher the sensitivity
Sensitivity :
The smallest
detectable
flaw by the
system or
technique
In UT the smallest detectable flaw is

(half the wavelength)

The behavior of sound propagation

is generally affected by three things
A relationship betweendensityand
pressure.
The propagation is also affected by the
motion of the medium itself. For
example, sound moving through wind
The viscosity of the medium also
affects the motion of sound waves.

18

Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.

A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.

Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material

where they travel in a straight line and at a
constant speed until they encounter a surface.

At surface interfaces some of the wave energy

is reflected and some is transmitted.

The amount of reflected or transmitted energy

can be detected and provides information
about the size of the reflector.

The travel time of the sound can be measured

and this provides information on the distance
that the sound has traveled.

Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection

method, and inspections can be accomplished in a
number of different ways.
Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly
divided into three primary classifications.
Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is
used)

Normal Beam and Angle Beam

(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the

test article)

Contact and Immersion

(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the

test article)

Piezoelectric transducers are used

for converting electrical pulses to
mechanical vibrations and vice
versa
Commonly used piezoelectric
materials are quartz, Li2SO4, and
polarized ceramics such as BaTiO3
and PbZrO3.
Usually the transducers generate
ultrasonic waves with frequencies
in the range 2.25 to 5.0 MHz

Longitudinal or
compression
waves

Shear or
transverse waves

Surface or
Rayleigh waves

Plate or Lamb
waves

Wave Propagation Direction

Symmetrical Asymmetrical

Longitudinal waves
Similar to audible sound

waves
the only type of wave
which can travel through
liquid

Shear waves
generated by passing

the ultrasonic beam

through the material at
an angle
Usually a plastic wedge
is used to couple the
transducer to the
material

Surface waves
travel with little attenuation in the direction

of propagation but weaken rapidly as the

wave penetrates below the material surface
particle displacement follows an elliptical
orbit

Lamb waves
observed in relatively thin plates only
velocity depends on the thickness of the

material and frequency

Piezoelectric Transducers
The active element of most acoustic
transducers is piezoelectric ceramic.
This ceramic is the heart of the
transducer which converts electrical
to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
A thin wafer vibrates with a
wavelength that is twice its thickness,
therefore, piezoelectric crystals are
cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the
desired radiated wavelength. Optimal
impedance matching is achieved by a
matching layer with thickness 1/4
wavelength.

Direction of wave
propagation

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.
Contact: are used for direct
contact inspections. Coupling
materials of water, grease, oils, or
commercial materials are used to
smooth rough surfaces and
prevent an air gap between the
transducer and the component
inspected.
Immersion: do not contact the
component. These transducers
are designed to operate in a
liquid environment and all
connections are watertight.
Wheel and squirter transducers
are examples of such immersion
applications.

Contact type

immersion

 Dual Element: contain two independently

operating elements in a single housing.
One of the elements transmits and the
other receives. Dual element transducers
are very useful when making thickness
measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects.

Dual element
Angle Beam: and wedges are typically
used to introduce a refracted shear wave
into the test material. Transducers can be
purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in
adjustable versions where the user
determines the angles of incident and
refraction. They are used to generate
surface waves for use in detecting defects
on the surface of a component.

Angle beam

Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo

In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy
(an echo).
Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
f
The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the
location of features that reflect the sound.
initial
pulse

back surface
echo

crack
echo

crack
0

UT Instrument Screen

10

plate

Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.
Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one
side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.

Test Techniques Through-Transmission

Two transducers located on
opposing sides of the test
specimen are used. One
transducer acts as a transmitter,
the other as a receiver.
Discontinuities in the sound path
will result in a partial or total loss
of sound being transmitted and
be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
Through transmission is useful in
detecting discontinuities that are
not good reflectors, and when
signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information.

1
1
T

1
1

10

Test Techniques Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.

Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can

determine the location of a discontinuity in
a part or structure by accurately
measuring the time required for a short
ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a thickness of
material, reflect from the back or the
surface of a discontinuity, and be returned
to the transducer. In most applications,
this time interval is a few microseconds or
less.
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
where d is the distance from the surface
to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is
the velocity of sound waves in the
material, and t is the measured round-trip
transit time.

Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to

introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. An
angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from
the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and
around welded areas.

Can be used for

testing flat sheet and
plate or pipe and
tubing
Angle beam units are
designed to induce
vibrations in Lamb,
longitudinal, and
shear wave modes

Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed
in a number of different formats. The three most
common formats are know in the NDT world as
A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations.
Each presentation mode provides a different
way of looking at and evaluating the region of
material being inspected. Modern computerized
ultrasonic scanning systems can display data in
all three presentation forms simultaneously

A-Scan
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received
ultrasonic energy as a function of time. The relative amount of
received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed
time (which may be related to the sound energy travel time
within the material) is display along the horizontal axis.
Relative discontinuity size
can be estimated by
comparing the signal
amplitude obtained from an
unknown reflector to that
from a known reflector.
Reflector depth can be
determined by the position
of the signal on the
horizontal sweep.

B-Scan
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the
a test specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of
the sound energy is displayed along the vertical and the linear
position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate
linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
The B-scan is typically
produced by establishing a
trigger gate on the A-scan.
Whenever the signal intensity
is great enough to trigger the
gate, a point is produced on
the B-scan. The gate is
triggered by the sound
reflecting from the backwall
of the specimen and by
smaller reflectors within the
material.

C-Scan:
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and
size of test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel to
the scan pattern of the transducer.
C-scan presentations are produced with an
automated data acquisition system, such as a
computer controlled immersion scanning
system. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan and the amplitude
or the time-of-flight of the signal is recorded
at regular intervals as the transducer is
scanned over the test piece. The relative
signal amplitude or the time-of-flight is
displayed as a shade of gray or a color for
each of the positions where data was
recorded. The C-scan presentation provides
an image of the features that reflect and
scatter the sound within and on the surfaces
of the test piece.

 Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)

Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively
joined and brazed components.
Estimation of void content in composites and
plastics
Estimation of grain size in metals.

Ultrasonic Inspection

Advantages

Rapid results
Sub-surface detection
Safe
Can detect planar defect
Capable of measuring the
depth of defects
May be battery powered
Portable

Disadvantages

Trained and skilled

operator required
Requires high operator
skill
Good surface finish
required
Difficulty on detecting
volumetric defect

LIQUID (DYE) PENETRANT TESTING

41

Introduction

Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to

reveal surface breaking flaws by bleedout of a colored or
fluorescent dye from the flaw.
The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn
into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This acts as
a "blotter." It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its
presence.
Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while
fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened
conditions with an ultraviolet "black light". Unlike MPI, this
method can be used in non-ferromagnetic materials and
even non-metals
Modern methods can reveal cracks 2m wide

Why Liquid Penetrant Inspection?

To improves the detectability of flaws
There are basically two ways that a
penetrant inspection process
makes flaws more easily seen.
(1) LPI produces a flaw indication
that is much larger and easier for
the eye to detect than the flaw
itself.
(2) LPI produces a flaw indication
The advantage that a liquid
with a high level of contrast
penetrant inspection (LPI) offers
between the indication and the
over an unaided visual inspection is
background.
that it makes defects easier to see
for the inspector.

Basic processing steps of LPI

1.

Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid

penetrant inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be
free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if
mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting
have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can
smear the surface of the sample, thus closing the defects.

2.

Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly

cleaned and dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying,
brushing, or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.

3.

Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient

time to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to
seep into a defect. The times vary depending on the application,
penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being
inspected, and the type of defect being inspected. Generally, there is
no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the
penetrant is not allowed to dry.

4.

Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the

inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be
removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little
penetrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant
system used, this step may involve cleaning with a solvent, direct
rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsing
with water.

5.

Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to

the sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface
where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that
may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6.

Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the

part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of
the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development
time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer
times may be necessary for tight cracks.

7.

Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate

lighting to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

8.

Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean

the part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were
found to be acceptable.