Animals Exam Review

Animals

General characteristics

Multicellularity

Heterotrophy

Internal digestion

Motility

Synapomorphies

Unique junctions between cells

Particular extracellular molecules (e.g. collagen and

proteoglycans)

Similarities in Hox and other genes

Phylogenies

Sponges

Eumetozoans

Distinct cell layers in development & nervous system

Dipoblasts = 2 cell layers

Tripoblasts = 3 cell layers

Endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm

Bilaterally symmetric

Cephalization = formation of a head

Early Development

Digestive tract starts development as a blastopore

Protosomes blastopore becomes mouth

Molluscs, worms, arthropods

Deutrosomes- blastopore becomes anus

Echinoderms, hemichordates, and chordates

Basic animal function

As an organism becomes more complex, cells specialize

into tissues

Epithelial, nervous, muscle, connective

Groups of tissues make up organs

Groups of organs make up organ systems

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + ATP + Heat

Metabolic rate rate of energy consumption

Metabolism

BMR-energy needed to support basic physiological

processes

Measured in a resting animal

Volume/surface area ratio

Transport systems

All cells need to be in contact with the environment

Intracellular fluid (60% of water in body)

Extracellular fluid

Blood plasma

Interstitial fluid

Regulation

Regulators vs Conformers

Homeostasis maintenance of a stable internal

environment

Positive vs. negative feedback

Set points arent static

Circadian rhythms, short-term responses, hibernation,

acclimitization

Thermoregulation

Homeotherms-maintain a constant internal body temp

Poikilotherms-animals whose internal temperature is

variable and changes with the external temperature

Homeostasis

Body temperature depends on heat

Heat gained from environment, heat lost to environment,

heat from metabolism

Heat in = heat out during homeostasis

Homeotherm metabolic rate is lowest in the TNZ

Thermoregulation

Ectotherms derive their heat from the

environment
Endotherms derive their heat from
cellular work
Four general ways to regulate heat gain
and loss

Adjust the rate of heat exchange with the

surroundings
Evaporative heat loss
Changing metabolic rate
Behavioral responses

What do endotherms do
when

Hot?

Skin blood
vessels dilate,
heat radiates
from skin

Increased
sweatingevaporative
cooling

Cold?

Skin blood
vessels constrict
and divert blood
away from skin
to deeper tissueprevent heat loss

Shivering-muscle
contraction

Heat transfer

Mechanisms

Radiation, convection, conduction, evaporation

Fouriers law

Q = kA (T1-T2)/d

Gas exchange

Uptake of O2 and release of CO2 to/from the

environment

Ficks Law of Diffusion

Q = DA (P1-P2)/L

Fish use countercurrent exchange to extract up to 80%

of O2 from water

Insects use tracheal systems, tubes which allow

individual cells to exchange with the environment

Ventilation in Lungs

Terrestrial vertebrates use lungs

Positive vs negative pressure ventilation

Inhalation diaphragm contracts (moves down), lungs

expand, pressure in lungs decreases air flows in

Exhalation-opposite processes

Alveoli greatly increase surface area

Stale air always remains in lungs

Unidirectional ventilation

Birds eliminate stale air issue by having unidirectional

air flow

Have air sacs

O2 transport

Hemoglobin or hemocyanin (arthropods and molluscs)

Hemoglobin transports O2 through the body and also

returns CO2 to the lungs

Medulla oblongata controls our breathing rate

Affected by blood O2 levels and the pH of the blood

Think CO2 not carried by hemoglobin

What happens to food?

Food + O2

Food either converted to heat or stored

CO2 + H20 + ATP + Heat

Short term storage as glycogen or long-term as fat

Essential nutrients required but cant be made by the body

Building blocks: Amino acids (9) and fatty acid

Organic molecules (vitamins)

Inorganic molecules (minerals)

Four Main Stages of Food

Processing
Ingestion
The

act of eating

Digestion
Process

of breaking down food into molecules small

enough for the body to absorb
Increases surface area exposed to digestive juices
Absorption
Cells

take up small molecules

Elimination
Undigested

materials pass out of digestive

compartment

Glands
Salivary

glands

salivary

amylase
starch/glycogen breakdown
Pancreas
Amylases
Trypsin/Chymotrypsin
Nucleases
Lipases

Liver
Bile

(emulsifiers)

Gall-bladder
Bile

salts (storage/concentration)

Stomach
Physiology
Stores

food and preliminary steps of digestion

gastric juices:
breaks
HCl

down extracellular matrix that binds cells together

(from Parietal cells)

converts Pepsinogen (inactive form) to pepsin

Pepsin

(from Chief cells)

Hydrolysis of proteins

pepsin can convert pepsinogen

Mucus

example of positive feedback

lining of stomach

Mucus

secreted: protects against self-digestion

Small Intestine

Longest section of alimentary canal = 6 m

Most of enzymatic hydrolysis of food and

most absorption of nutrients here

Duodenum

Pancreas releases hydrolytic enzymes and

bicarbonate (acts as buffer)

Brush border: source of several digestive enzymes

Mixing of bile and enzymes

Jejunum and ileum

Absorption of nutrients and water

Pancreas and Liver

Pancreas

hydrolytic enzymes and bicarbonate solution

Insulin and glucagon

Liver

detoxifies various substances

Biotranformation enzymes

Makes compounds water soluble - for excretion

Degrades drugs/hormones/toxins

produces BILE that is stored in gallbladder

Bile Salts help digestion of fats

emulsification of fats

Fat Digestion
1.

emulsification by Bile Salts

2.

digestion with lipase

3.

absorption and reassembly

Chylomicron
Enter

- water soluble

blood via lymphatics

Large Intestine
Major

function = water reabsorption

Feces
Wastes

Bacteria

of digestive tract

reside in large intestine

Generate
i.e.

gases

methane, hydrogen sulfide

Produce
Biotin,

Rectum:

vitamins
folic acid, vitamin K, B vitamins

terminal portion

Nitrogenous Wastes
Ammonia
Soluble
Toxic
Need

access to a lot of water

Urea
Ammonia

+ CO2

Nontoxic
Requires

Uric

a lot of energy

Acid

Nontoxic
Requires

very little water

Very energy expensive

Osmoregulation

Osmolarity

Osmoconformers

typically live in osmotically predictable environments.

Osmoregulators

The concentration of solutes in water

Face differing demands depending on their environments.

On land and in air:

Water lost to air
Animals regulate permeability of surfaces in contact with
air
Develop excretory systems for managing salt excretions,
typically using tubules

Hyper, hypo, and isoosmotic

Excretory Pathway
1.

2.

3.

4.

Bowman's capsule

pressure in blood pushes blood out of capillaries into bowman's capsule

H2O, salts, HCO3-, H+, Urea, amino acids, some drugs

Proximal tubule

Needed things are reabsorbed into blood

active transport (nutrients, some salts), water reabsorbed

Descending loop of henle

reabsorbs water, filtrate more and more concentrated

epithelium is impermeable to salts and nutrients, permeable to water

Ascending loop of henle

impermeable to water, permeable to salts (so diffuse out into blood)

thin segment: passive reabsorption of salt

thick segment: active transport; in between concentration gradient

evens out

Excretory Pathway, contd

Distal tubule

5.

Collecting duct

6.

7.

under strict hormonal control

regulates salt concentration (NaCl and K+)
regulates pH (H+ and HCO3-)
carries filtrate to renal pelvis
permeability: under control of hormones; active
transport of NaCl out of filtrate; when organism needs
to conserve water, it opens aquaporens (channel
proteins)

at end, have nitrogenous wastes and some urea

and water

Dieuresis and antidieuresis

Dieuresis
-Low levels of ADH produced
-Few aquaporins in the DCT
-Water not reasbsorbed by the body
-High volume of dilute urine
Antidieuresis
-High levels of ADH
-Many aquaporins open in the DCT
-Na+ and K+ actively pumped out
-Water diffuses out through aquaporins
-Low volume of isosmotic urine

Circulatory System:
Invertebrates

Gastrovascular

cavities

Digestion

and distribution of substances

throughout body

Open

vs closed circulatory systems

Open
blood

and interstitial fluid are the same = hemolymph

Sinuses:

spaces surrounding organs

Closed
blood

circulated within vessels

Distinct

from interstitial fluid

Circulatory System: Vertebrates

7 Vessel types

atria

ventricles

arteries

arterioles

capillaries

venules

veins

Vertebrate
group

# of heart chambers

Circuits and their function

1. fishes

1 atrium, 1 ventricle (1
chamber)

single circuit of blood (heart gills

systemic circuit)

2. amphibians

2 atria, 1 ventricle

Pulmocutaneous circuit (ventricle

capillary beds in lungs and skin
heart/atria ventricle
systemic circuit)
Systemic circuit

3. turtles,
lepidosaurs,
tuatara

2 atria, 1 ventricle (with

septum)

Right systemic aorta (blood can

circle back and go through
systemic circuit again instead of
going through lungs)

4. crocodilians

2 atria, 2 ventricles

Same as reptiles

5. birds

2 atria, 2 ventricles

Pulmonary circuit and systemic

circuit

6. mammals

4 chambers

Pulmonary and systemic circuit

Double Circulation

Systole: contraction

Diastole: relaxation

SA node AV node Purkinje fibers

Blood pressure: determined by cardiac output and

peripheral resistance

Blood Composition

Plasma: liquid matrix

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Transport oxygen

White blood cells (leukocytes)

Function in defense

Produce antibodies

Platelets

Blood clotting

Blood capillaries

Arteries

Thicker

No valves

Blood carried away from heart

Veins

Thinner

Valves to prevent backflow

Blood carried towards the heart

Endocrine system

Endocrine secretion-cells secrete substances into the

ECF

Exocrine secretion- cells secrete substances into a duct

or onto an epithelial surface

Act on target cells

Autocrine, Paracrine, Hormones

Hormone types
1.

Peptide (protein ) hormones

2.

Water soluble

Steroid hormones

Lipid soluble

3.

Amine hormones

Water soluble hormones have membrane bound

receptors

Lipid soluble hormones have receptors in cytoplasm

Regulation

Upregulation and downregulation

Negative feedback loops

Hormones act in pairs to maintain homeostasis

Secretion of hormones may be monitored by

Neurons

Binding of other hormones

Binding of other molecules

Thyroid Hormones
located in neck
stimulated by TSH: releases thyroxine (T4) and T3

Lipophilic
Increases

Cellular respiration
Glycogen breakdown
Body temp
Breathing rate

Calcitonin

counteracts affect of parathyroid gland in regulating calcium levels

inhibiting bone decomposition
increases reabsorption by kidneys (lowers blood calcium level)

Parathyroid Hormone

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

increases Ca2+ in blood by

inducing composition of bone

Stimulating reabsorption of Ca2+ by kidneys

Converting vit. D to its active form, leading to increased Ca

absorption in gut

stimulated by low Ca level in blood

Pancreas

Insulin:

Peptide
Released by Beta cells
Lowers Blood Glucose Levels by

Increase glucose storage

causing cells to absorb glucose from blood

Increase absorption of glucose from filtrate in kidney

Glucagon:

Peptide
Released by Alpha cells
increases blood glucose level by

Increases glycogen breakdown

Posterior Pituitary

Extension of hypothalamus

Store and release hormones produced by

hypothalamus
ADH

Connected by the hypothalamo-hyphoseal tract (axons)

Neurohypophysis

Promotes retention of water by kidneys

Regulated by water/salt balance
Peptide

Oxytocin

Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary gland

Regulated by nervous system

Anterior Pituitary

FSH- Follicle stimulating

hormonesimulates gonads to produce
sperm or ova

stimulates mammary glands to

produce milk
regulated by prolactin inhibiting
hormone (PIH)
negative feedback (inhibits inhibiting
hormone)

regulated by GnRH (gonadotropinreleasing hormone)

Negative Feedback from Estrogen

LH- luteinizing hormone

casues gonads to produce and release
steroid sex hormones
regulated by GnRH
LH surge causes ovulation

Growth Hormone
stimulates protein synthesis and growth
in most cells especially of bones
stimulates metabolism
stimulated by GHRH (growth hormone
releasing hormone)
inhibited by somatostatin

Prolactin

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

stimulates thyroid to release T4 and
T3
regulated by thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)
stimulates adrenal cortex to release
glucocotocoids
regulated by corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH)

3 hormone cascades

HPA axis (salt water balance, stress response)

HPT (regulates metabolism)

Hypothalimus corticotropin releasing hormone pituitary

ACTH adrenal cortex mineral corticoids and
glucocorticoids

Hyp TRH pituitary TSH thyroid-thyroxin

HPG (growth, development, sex behavior)

Hyp-GnRH-Pit-FSH,LH-Gonads-Sex steroids

Reproduction
Sexual vs Asexual
Asexual

Budding-animal grows out of parent

Fission parent divides into offspring

Parthenogenesis-development of offspring from

unfertilized eggs

Sexual

Anisogamy-unequal egg sizes (male smaller)

Parthenogenesis production of offspring from unfertilized

eggs

Sexual reproduction is the norm in most vertebrates &

many invertebrates.

Anisogamy = unequal- sized gametes

By definition, males produce smaller gametes (sperm),

females larger (eggs).

Who produces eggs and sperm

Gonochores-male and female have separate gonads

Hermaphrodites-one individual produces both

Simultaneous

Sequential

Protogynous female first

Protoandrous male first

Male Reproductive Anatomy

Testes

Seminiferous tubules

where sperm form

Leydig cells

male gonads

Produce testosterone and androgens

Seminiferous tubules epididymis vas

deferens ejaculatory duct urethra
penis
Seminal vesicles

Contributes 60% total volume of semen

Testes

Androgens:
stimulated by FSH and LH
Secreted by leydig cells
example: testosterone

sperm

synthesis and development

causes fetus to develop as male
development and maintenance of male secondary sex
characteristics

low voice, facial hair, increased muscle and bone mass

androgens as anabolic steroids

negative

feedback reduces testosterone, leading to reduced

sperm count, testicular size
also causes acne and liver damage

Female Reproductive Anatomy

Ovaries

Follicles

thin-walled chamber that is repository for sperm and birth canal

Bartholins glands

thick, muscular, womb

Vagina

fallopian tube, has cilia

Uterus

secretes estrogen and progesterone

Oviduct

one egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells

Corpus luteum

female gonads, enclosed by protective capsule

secrete mucus during sexual arousal

Mammary glands

secrete milk

Ovaries

Estrogen and Progestins

stimulated by FSH and LH

estrogen example: estradiol

initiation of uterine lining growth

development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics

enlarged breast tissue, widened pelvis

progestin example: progesterone

promotes uterine lining growth during menstrual cycle

Ovarian Cycle
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Release of GnRH from hypothalamus

Stimulates secretion of FSH and LH (small
amounts)
FSH stimulates follicle growth, aided by LH
Follicles start making estrogen
Secretion of estrogen rises sharply =
increase in FSH and LH
Positive feedback between LH and estrogen
LH surge ovulation (rupturing of follicle)
Luteal phase = follicle corpus luteum
(secretes estrogen and progesterone)

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

9.

Estrogen and progesterone secreted by corpus luteum

stimulate development and maintenance of
endometrium

10.

Corpus luteum disintegrates drop in hormone

levels endometrium disintegrates menstruation

Fertilization

Internal

Sperm are deposited in or near the female

reproductive tract
Fertilization occurs within tract
Produce few offspring that have better chance
of survival

External

Eggs are released by the female into a wet

environment, where they are fertilized by an
egg
Usually produce enormous numbers of zygotes,
but proportion that survive is small

Contraception

rhythm method

female tracks ovulation; if done precisely, works well

barrier method
barrier b/t sperm and egg
diaphragm, cervical cap, condoms; 75%

Hormones

birth control pills, patches, rings; 99%

sterilization

Tubal ligation
oviducts

are cauterized or ligated

Vasectomy
vas

deferens are cut

Spermatogenesis and
oogenisis

Nervous system

Neurons-generate and transmit electrical signals called

action potentials

Glial cells-support neurons

Neuron anatomy cont.

Synapse-junction between 2 neurons or neuron and

muscle cell

Neurotransmitters-cross the synapse to transmit signals

3 stages of information processing

Afferent (sensory) neurons

Interneurons

Efferent (motor) neurons

Signaling

Membrane potential- difference in electrical charge

across a membrane

Action potential-sudden large change in membrane

potential

Resting potential- about -60millivolts

Na/K pump

Moves Na out and K in (active transport)

Ion Channels

Voltage gated-change in membrane potential

opens/closes

Chemically gated-binds specific molecules

Mechanically gated-Force opens/closes

Depolarizaiton- potential becomes less negative

Hyperpolarization- becomes more negative

Potentials

Graded potentials-small localized changes from resting

potential

Cumulative

Action potential
1.

Resting potential-gated channels are closed

2.

Graded potentials- some Na+ channels open, gradual

depolarization to threshold

3.

Rising phase-All Na+ channels open; rapid

depolarization

4.

Falling phase-K+ channels open and Na+ channels

close; membrane repolarizes

5.

Refractory period

Action potential facts

Action potentials travel along the axon

All-or-nothing

Self regenerating depolarizing adjacent regions of the

membrane

Continuous- one direction, refractory period prevents

backwards potential

Neuron Communication

Electricalsynapse:gapjunctionsallow actionpotentials
flow from one cell to the next.

Chemicalsynapseneurotransmitters from apresynaptic

cellbind to receptors in apostsynaptic cell.

Immune system

Pathogen-causes disease

Immunity-ability to avoid diseases when invaded by a

pathogen

Innate immunity- from birth

All animals have; barriers; nonspecific

Acquired immunity

Only in vertebrates; pathogen-specific

Innate defense

Skin, mucous, lysozyme, defensins

Second line of defense

Pattern recognition receptors

Pathogen associated molecular patterns

Phagocytosis

Apoptosis-natural killer cells

First responders-mast cells, histamines, prostaglandins

Hygiene Hypothesis

Inflammation

Isolates area to stop spread of damage

Recruits cells and molecules

Promotes healing

If immune system targets wrong antigens?

Allergies

Autoimmune disease

Acquired immunity
1.

Specificity-recognize antigens

2.

Distinguish self from nonself

3.

Diversity

4.

Immunological memory

2 branches

Humoral immunity (antibody production) B lymphocytes

Cellular immunity (kill infected cells) Cytotoxic T

lymphocytes

Acquired immunity

3 phases

Recognition, activator, effector

Humoral immunity
1. Antigen binds to a B cell with an antibody specific to that
antigen (antigen fragments bind to the MHC II complex and
are presented on the B cell surface)
2. A specific Th cell with a matching receptor binds to the MHCII/antigen complex and releases cytokines, which stimulate the
specific B cell to divide and form a clone (clonal selection).
3. B clone cells give rise to two types of cells:

Plasma cells secrete antibodies into the blood stream.

b. Memory cells are long- lived cells that can divide on short notice.
a.

Cellular immunity

Cellular immunity

1.
The antigen-presenting cell is typically a
macrophage MHC-II proteins present pathogen
fragments on cell surface.

2.
A matching TH cell binds to the MHC-II/antigen
complex and releases cytokines. Cytokines stimulate
the division of Tc cells with matching T cell receptors.
These form both effector and memory cells.

3.
Effector TC cells bind to cells bearing the
antigen / MHC-I complex and destroy them by producing
perforin or by stimulating apoptosis.