C H AP T E R
AnatomyLevels of Study
Gross anatomy
Large structures
Easily observable
Parotid gland
Sublingual gland
Submandibular
gland
Salivary glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
Small intestine
Anus
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Duodenum
Jejunum
lleum
Transverse
colon
Descending
colon
Ascending
colon
Cecum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anal canal
Large intestine
Figure 14.1
AnatomyLevels of Study
Microscopic anatomy
Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope
Gastric pits
Gastric pit
Pyloric
sphincter
Surface
epithelium
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric gland
Parietal cells
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)
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Figure 14.4c
Pepsinogen
HCl
Pepsin
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
cell
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(d)
Figure 14.4d
Molecules
Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio
vascular
system
6 Organismal level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
Figure 1.1
Skin
Figure 1.2a
Cartilages
Joint
Bones
Figure 1.2b
Skeletal
muscles
Figure 1.2c
Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves
Figure 1.2d
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
Figure 1.2e
Heart
Blood
vessels
Figure 1.2f
Thoracic
duct
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
Figure 1.2g
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Left lung
Figure 1.2h
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Figure 1.2i
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
Figure 1.2j
Seminal
vesicles
Prostate
gland
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Penis
Vas
deferens
Vagina
Testis
Scrotum
Figure 1.2kl
Survival Needs
Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building
Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
Oxygen
Required for chemical reactions
Survival Needs
Water
60 to 80 percent of body weight
Most abundant chemical in the human body
Provides for metabolic reaction
Stable body temperature
37C (98F)
Atmospheric pressure
Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and eliminates
carbon dioxide
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Food
O2
CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
Heart
Nutrients
CO2
O2
Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogencontaining wastes
and excess ions
Interstitial fluid
Feces
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Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
Urine
Figure 1.3
Homeostasis
Homeostasismaintenance of a stable
internal environment
A dynamic state of equilibrium
Necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
Homeostatic imbalance
A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in
disease
3 Input: Information
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
Receptor
4 Output: Information
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Effector
5 Response
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
IMB
ALA
NC
E
Figure 1.4
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMB
ALA
NC
E
Receptor
detects change.
2
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
Receptor
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMB
ALA
NC
E
3 Input: Information
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMB
ALA
NC
E
3 Input: Information
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
Receptor
4 Output: Information
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Effector
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMB
ALA
NC
E
3 Input: Information
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
Receptor
4 Output: Information
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Effector
5 Response
IMB
ALA
NC
E
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
IMB
ALA
NC
E
Maintaining Homeostasis
The body communicates through neural and
hormonal control systems
Receptor
Responds to changes in the environment
(stimuli)
Sends information to control center
Maintaining Homeostasis
Control center
Determines set point
Analyzes information
Determines appropriate response
Effector
Provides a means for response to the
stimulus
Feedback Mechanisms
Negative feedback
Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
Works like a household thermostat
Feedback Mechanisms
Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
In the body this only occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby
Regional Terms
Anterior body landmarks
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Upper limb
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Manus (hand)
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Pubic (genital)
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Digital
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.5a
Regional Terms
Posterior body landmarks
Cephalic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Cervical
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Manus (hand)
Digital
Gluteal
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
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(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.5b
Directional Terms
Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the
head end or upper part of a structure or the
body; above
Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a structure or the
body; below
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of
the body; in front of
Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside
of the body; behind
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
Medial: toward or at the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
Lateral: away from the midline of the body;
on the outer side of
Intermediate: between a more medial and a
more lateral structure
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
Proximal: close to the origin of the body
part or point of attachment to a limb to the
body trunk
Distal: farther from the origin of a body part
or the point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
Table 1.1
Directional Terms
Superficial: toward or at the body surface
Deep: away from the body surface; more
internal
Table 1.1
Rectum
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Intestines
Liver
Left
lung
Stomach Spleen
Liver Aorta
Spinal
Spleen
cord
Subcutaneous Stomach
fat layer
Figure 1.6
Body Cavities
Dorsal body cavity
Cranial cavity houses the brain
Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
Ventral body cavity
Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and
others
Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive
system and most urinary system organs
Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Spinal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Diaphragm
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity
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Figure 1.7
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Figure 1.8
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver
Right
Left
hypohypoEpigastric
chondriac
chondriac
region
region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Gallbladder
Ascending
colon of large
intestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Transverse
colon of large
intestine
Descending
colon of large
intestine
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary
bladder
Figure 1.9a-b