SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

(SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),

Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding
Informally as stick welding
is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.

An electric current, in the form of either

alternating current or direct current from a
welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined.

 As the weld is laid, the flux coating of

the electrode disintegrates, giving off
vapors that serve as a shielding gas
and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the
process and the simplicity of its
equipment and operation, shielded
metal arc welding is one of the world's
most popular welding processes.

 It dominates other welding processes in the

maintenance and repair industry, used
extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.
The process is used primarily to weld iron
and steels (including stainless steel) but
aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) , a
modification to SMAW is growing in
popularity

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Uses

an open electric arc, so

risk of burns to be prevented
by protective clothing in the
form of heavy leather gloves
and long sleeve jackets.
The brightness of the weld area
can lead arc eye, in which
ultraviolet light causes the
inflammation of the cornea and
can burn the retinas of the eyes.
Welding helmets with dark face
plates to be worn to prevent this
exposure

 New helmet models have been produced that

feature a face plate that self-darkens upon
exposure to high amounts of UV light
To protect bystanders, especially in
industrial environments, transparent welding
curtains often surround the welding area.
These are made of a polyvinyl chloride
plastic film, shield nearby workers from
exposure to the UV light from the electric arc,
but should not be used to replace the filter
glass used in helmets.

ARC EYE

Arc eye, also known as arc flash or welder's flash or

corneal flash burns, is a painful condition sometimes
experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate
eye protection.
It can also occur due to light from sunbeds, light
reflected from snow (known as snow blindness), water
or sand. The intense ultraviolet light emitted by the arc
causes a superficial and painful keratitis.

Symptoms tend to occur a number of hours

Signs
Intense lacrimation
Blepharospasm
Photophobia
Fluorescein dye staining will reveal corneal ulcers
under blue light
Management
Instill topical anaesthesia
Inspect the cornea for any foreign body
Patch the worse of the two eyes and prescribe analgesia
Topical antibiotics in the form of eye drops or eye
ointment or both should be prescribed for prophylaxis
against infection

EQUIPMENT

Various welding electrodes and an electrode holder

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

CONTROL PANEL

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Is a common arc welding process.
A continuously fed consumable solid or tubular
(metal cored) electrode used.
The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being
submerged under a blanket of granular fusible
flux.
When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and
provides a current path between the electrode
and the work

 Normally operated in the automatic or

mechanized mode.
Semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with
pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available.
The process is normally limited to the 1F, 1G, or
the 2F positions (although 2G position welds
have been done with a special arrangement to
support the flux). Deposition rates approaching
45 kg/h have been reported this compares to
~5 kg/h (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are
commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have
been used (multiple arcs).

 Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire

variations of the process exist
SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip
electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm
thick).
DC or AC power can be utilized, and
combinations of DC and AC are common
on multiple electrode systems.
Constant Voltage welding power supplies
are most commonly used, however
Constant Current systems in combination
with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.

Material applications
Carbon steels (structural and vessel
construction);
Low alloy steels;
Stainless Steels;
Nickel-based alloys;
Surfacing applications (wearfacing, buildup, and corrosion resistant overlay of
steels).

Advantages of SAW
High deposition rates (over45 kg/h) have been
reported;
High operating factors in mechanized
applications;
Deep weld penetration;
Sound welds are readily made (with good
process design and control);
High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over
2.5 m/min is possible;
Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.

Limitations of SAW
Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and
some nickel based alloys;
Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
Normally limited to long straight seams or
rotated pipes or vessels;
Requires relatively troublesome flux handling
systems;
Flux and slag residue can present a health &
safety issue;
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.

Key SAW process variables

Wire Feed Speed (main factor in welding current control);

Arc Voltage;
Travel Speed;
Electrical Stick-Out (ESO) or Contact Tip to Work (CTTW);
Polarity and Current Type (AC or DC).

Other factors

Flux depth/width;
Flux and electrode classification and type;
Electrode wire diameter;
Multiple electrode configurations.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

GTAW

GTAW
Fusion Welding Process
Arc Between Non-Consumable
Tungsten Rod And Work
Arc & Weld Pool Shielded By Argon/Gas
Filler Wire Separately Added To Weld
Pool
Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod Cooled
by Flow OF Argon / Cooling Water

GTAW Equipment & Accessories

Power Source Inverter, Thyrister, Rectifier,

Generator
High Frequency Unit
Water Cooling System
Welding Torch- (Ceramic Cup, Tungsten Rod, Collet,
Gas-lens)
Pedal Switch
Argon Gas Cylinder
Pressure Gauge, Regulator, Flow Meter
Earthing Cable With Clamp

Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Tungsten Rod
Argon Gas In
Cooling Water In

Solenoid
Valve

Argon Cylinder

Gas Lens
Ceramic Cup
Arc

Welding Cable & Cooling

Water In Tube
Cooling Water Out
Argon Shielding

Work
Pedal Switch

HF Unit &
Water Cooling
System

High Frequency
Connection

Power Source

Equipment

GTAW torch with various

electrodes, cups, collets and gas
diffusers

GTAW torch, disassembled

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),

commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding

Is an arc welding process that uses a

nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is
normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it.
A constant current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the
arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
metal vapors known as a plasma.

 Most commonly used to weld thin sections of

stainless steel and light metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
The process grants the operator greater
control over the weld than competing
procedures such as
shielded metal arc welding and
gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds.
GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding
techniques.
A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a
slightly different welding torch to create a
more focused welding arc and as a result is
often automated.

GTAW system setup

Applications

Aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas

tungsten arc welding, the process is used in a number of other
areas.
Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces,
especially nonferrous metals.
It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and
is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall
tubing.
Is often used to make root or first pass welds for piping of
various sizes.
In maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used
to repair tools and dies, especially components made of
aluminum and magnesium.
Because the welds it produces are highly resistant to corrosion
and cracking over long time periods, GTAW is the welding
procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing
spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.

GTAW ranks the highest in terms of the

quality of weld produced.
Operation must be with free from oil,
moisture, dirt and other impurities, as
these cause weld porosity and
consequently a decrease in weld
strength and quality.
To remove oil & grease, alcohol or
similar commercial solvents used, while
a stainless steel wire brush or chemical
process remove oxides from the
surfaces of metals like aluminum.
Rust on steels removed by first
grit blasting the surface and then using a
wire brush to remove imbedded grit.
These steps important when DCEN
used, because this provides no cleaning
during the welding process, unlike
DCEPor AC.
To maintain a clean weld pool during welding, the shielding gas flow should be
sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in
the atmosphere. GTA welding in windy or drafty environments increases the
amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld, increasing the cost and
making the process unpopular outdoors.

Quality

 Because of GTAW's relative difficulty and the

importance of proper technique, skilled
operators are employed for important
applications.
Low heat input, caused by low welding
current or high welding speed, can limit
penetration and cause the weld bead to lift
away from the surface being welded.
If there is too much heat input, the weld
bead grows in width while the likelihood of
excessive penetration and spatter increase.
If the welder holds the welding torch too far
from the workpiece, shielding gas is wasted
and the appearance of the weld worsens.

 If the amount of current used exceeds the

capability of the electrode, tungsten
inclusions in the weld may result. Known as
tungsten spitting, it can be identified with
radiography and prevented by changing the
type of electrode or increasing the electrode
diameter.
If the electrode is not well protected by the
gas shield or the operator accidentally allows
it to contact the molten metal, it can become
dirty or contaminated. This often causes the
welding arc to become unstable, requiring
that electrode be ground with a diamond
abrasive to remove the impurity.

 GTAW welding torches designed for either automatic

or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The automatic and
manual torches are similar in construction, but the
manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch
normally comes with a mounting rack.
The angle between the centerline of the handle and
the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as
the head angle, can be varied on some manual
torches according to the preference of the operator.
Air cooling systems are most often used for lowcurrent operations (up to about 200 A), while water
cooling is required for high-current welding (up to
about 600 A).
The torches are connected with cables to the power
supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source
and where used, the water supply.

 The internal metal parts of a torch

are made of hard alloys of copper
or brass in order to transmit
current and heat effectively.
The tungsten electrode must be
held firmly in the center of the
torch with an appropriately sized
collet, and ports around the
electrode provide a constant flow
of shielding gas.
The body of the torch is made of
heat-resistant, insulating plastics
covering the metal components,
providing insulation from heat and
electricity to protect the welder.

GTAW TORCH

Torch Handle

Cap with collet For

Holding Tungsten

Cooling Water Outlet

Argon Gas Inlet

Cooling Water Inlet Tube with cable

Ceramic Cup
Argon Shielding Gas

Tungsten Rod

Base Metal
Earthing Cable

Arc

 The size of the welding torch nozzle depends

on the size of the desired welding arc, and
the inside diameter of the nozzle is normally
at least three times the diameter of the
electrode.
The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is
normally made of alumina or a ceramic
material, but fused quartz, a glass-like
substance, offers greater visibility.
Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for
special applications, such as gas lenses or
valves to control shielding gas flow and
switches to control welding current.

Power supply

GTAW uses a constant

current power source,
meaning that the current (and
thus the heat) remains
relatively constant, even if
the arc distance and voltage
change.
This is important because
most applications of GTAW
are manual or semiautomatic,
requiring that an operator
hold the torch.
Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power
source is used instead, since
it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding
more difficult.

The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on

the type of metal being welded.

DCEN is often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium,

and other metals. It can also be used in automatic GTA welding
of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding
gas. The negatively charged electrode generates heat by
emitting electrons which travel across the arc, causing thermal
ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature
of the base material. The ionized shielding gas flows toward
the electrode, not the base material, and this can allow oxides
to build on the surface of the weld.

DCEP is less common, and is used primarily for shallow welds

since less heat is generated in the base material. Instead of
flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN,
electrons go the other direction, causing the electrode to reach
very high temperatures. To help it maintain its shape and
prevent softening, a larger electrode is often used. As the
electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas
flows back toward the base material, cleaning the weld by
removing oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its
quality and appearance.

 AC commonly used when welding aluminum and

magnesium manually or semi-automatically, combines
the two direct currents by making the electrode and
base material alternate between positive and negative
charge. This causes the electron flow to switch
directions constantly, preventing the tungsten electrode
from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base
material. This makes the ionized shielding gas
constantly switch its direction of flow, causing
impurities to be removed during a portion of the cycle.

Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced

alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time
that the current spends in each state of polarity, giving them more
control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by
the power source.

In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in

which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight
polarity (negative electrode) to reverse polarity (positive
electrode).
To remedy the problem, a square wave power supply
can be used, as can high frequency voltage to
encourage ignition.

Tungsten Rod

Tungsten Rod

Non Consumable Electrode.

Maintains Stable Arc
Tip to be Ground to a cone Shape of 60 to 30
angle
Thoriated Tungsten for General Application,
Zerconiated Tungsten for Aluminium Welding
Sizes :- 2, 2.4 & 3 mm

Ground to
50 ankle

The electrode used in GTAW is

made of tungsten or a tungsten
alloy, because tungsten has the
highest melting temperature among
metals, at 3422 C.
The electrode is not consumed
during welding, though some erosion
(called burn-off) can occur.
Electrodes can have either a clean
finish or a ground finishclean finish
electrodes have been chemically
cleaned, while ground finish
electrodes have been ground to a
uniform size and have a polished
surface, making them optimal for
heat conduction.
The diameter of the electrode can
vary between 0.5 mm and 6.4 mm,
and their length can range from 75
to 610 mm .

ISO
Class

ISO Color

AWS Class

AWS
Color

Alloy [18]

WP

Green

EWP

Green

None

WC20

Gray

EWCe-2

Orange

~2% CeO2

WL10

Black

EWLa-1

Black

~1% LaO2

WL15

Gold

EWLa-1.5

Gold

~1.5% LaO2

WL20

Sky-blue

EWLa-2

Blue

~2% LaO2

WT10

Yellow

EWTh-1

Yellow

~1% ThO2

WT20

Red

EWTh-2

Red

~2% ThO2

WT30

Violet

~3% ThO2

WT40

Orange

~4% ThO2

WY20

Blue

~2% Y2O3

WZ3

Brown

WZ8

White

EWZr-1

Brown

~0.3% ZrO2
~0.8% ZrO2

A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the

International Organization for Standardization and the
American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12, respectively, for use
in GTAW electrodes- refer table

Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose and

low cost electrodes. Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element improves
arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off. Using an alloy of
lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect. Thorium oxide (or thoria)
alloy electrodes were designed for DC applications and can withstand
somewhat higher temperatures while providing many of the benefits of other
alloys.
However, it is somewhat radioactive, and as a replacement, electrodes with
larger concentrations of lanthanum oxide can be used. Electrodes containing
zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity while improving arc
stability and starting and increasing electrode life.

Electrode manufacturers may create alternative tungsten alloys with specified

metal additions, and these are designated with the classification EWG under
the AWS system.

Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases, the
filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some
applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which is fed from rolls.

shielding gases

Necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric

gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion
defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in
contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. The gas
also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it
helps start and maintain a stable arc.
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors,
including the type of material being welded, joint design, and
desired final weld appearance.
Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW,
since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length. When
used with alternating current, the use of argon results in high
weld quality and good appearance.
Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to
increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding
speed, and to weld conductive metals like copper and
aluminum.
A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc
with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated
with a varying arc length.

Shielding Gas

Inert Gas - Argon , Helium

Common Shielding Gas Argon
When Helium Is Used Called Heli Arc Welding
When Argon Is Used Called Argon Arc Welding
Inert Gas Prevents Contamination Of Molten Metal
It Prevents Oxidation Of Tungsten Rod
It Ionizes Air Gap and Stabilizes Arc
It Cools Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod

Shielding Gas
Argon - Purity 99.95%
Impure Argon Results In Porosities
Purity Verified by Fusing BQ CS plate
Leakage of Argon in Torch Results in
Porosity.
Check Leakage by Closing the Ceramic Cup
With Thump

Argon Gas Cylinder

Light Blue In Colour
Full Cylinder Pressure: 1800 psi ( 130 Kgs / Cm2 )
Volume Of Argon In Full Cylinder: 7.3 M3
Commercial Argon (99.99%) Cost: Rs 70/- Per M3
High Purity Argon (99.999) Cost: Rs 87/- Per M3

Back Purging
Purging Gas Commercial Argon or Applicable to Single
Nitrogen
Sided full penetration
Prevents oxidation of
Filler Wire
Welding Torch
root pass from opposite
side of weld
Essential for high alloy
steels, nonferrous
Purging
Purging Gas In
Gas Out
metals and alloys
Root Pass
Purging
Desirable For All
chamber
Material

 Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in

GTAW, since they can increase control of the heat input
while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally,
the mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about
75% or higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures
increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of
aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc.
Argon-hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of
light gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can
cause porosity, its uses are limited.
Nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help
stabilize the austenite in austentitic stainless steels and
increase penetration when welding copper. Due to
porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits,
however, it is not a popular shielding gas additive.

Materials
Most commonly used to weld stainless steel
and nonferrous materials, such as aluminum
and magnesium, but it can be applied to
nearly all metals, with notable exceptions
being lead and zinc.
Its applications involving carbon steels are
limited not because of process restrictions,
but because of the existence of more
economical steel welding techniques, such
as gas metal arc welding and
shielded metal arc welding.
GTAW can be performed in a variety of otherthan-flat positions, depending on the skill of
the welder and the materials being welded.

A TIG weld showing an

accentuated AC etched zone

Closeup view of an
aluminium TIG weld AC etch zone

 Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using

alternating current, but the use of direct current is also
possible, depending on the properties desired. Before
welding, the work area should be cleaned and may be
preheated to 175-200 C for aluminum or to a maximum
of 150 C for thick magnesium workpieces to improve
penetration and increase travel speed.
AC current can provide a self-cleaning effect, removing
the thin, refractory aluminium oxide (sapphire) layer that
forms on aluminium metal within minutes of exposure to
air. This oxide layer must be removed for welding to
occur. When alternating current is used, pure tungsten
electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are
preferred over thoriated electrodes, as the latter are
more likely to "spit" electrode particles across the
welding arc into the weld.
Blunt electrode tips are preferred, and pure argon
shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces.
Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in
thicker workpieces, but can make arc starting difficult.

 Direct current of either polarity, positive or negative,

can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as
well.
DCEN allows for high penetration, and is most
commonly used on joints with butting surfaces,
such as square groove joints. Short arc length
(generally less than 2 mm or 0.07 in) gives the best
results, making the process better suited for
automatic operation than manual operation.
Shielding gases with high helium contents are most
commonly used with DCEN, and thoriated electrodes
are suitable.
DCEP is used primarily for shallow welds, especially
those with a joint thickness of less than 1.6 mm.
While still important, cleaning is less essential for
DCEP than DCEN, since the electron flow from the
workpiece to the electrode helps maintain a clean
weld. A large, thoriated tungsten electrode is
commonly used, along with a pure argon shielding
gas.

Steels
For GTA welding of carbon and stainless steels, the
selection of a filler material is important to prevent
excessive porosity. Oxides on the filler material and
workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent
contamination, and immediately prior to welding, alcohol
or acetone should be used to clean the surface.
Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less
than one inch thick, but low alloy steels may require
preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the
formation of martensite in the heat-affected zone.
Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking
in the heat-affected zone. Austenitic stainless steels do
not require preheating, but martensitic and ferritic
chromium stainless steels do. A DCEN power source is
normally used, and thoriated electrodes, tapered to a
sharp point, are recommended. Pure argon is used for
thin workpieces, but helium can be introduced as
thickness increases.

Dissimilar metals

Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to

GTA welding, because most materials do not easily fuse to
form a strong bond. Welds of dissimilar materials have
numerous applications in manufacturing, repair work, and the
prevention of corrosion and oxidation. In some joints, a
compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond, and
this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials
(eg:, using a stainless steel filler metal stainless steel and
carbon steel as base materials), or a different metal (such as
the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron).
Very different materials may be coated or "buttered" with a
material compatible with a particular filler metal, and then
welded. In addition, GTAW can be used in cladding or
overlaying dissimilar materials.
When welding dissimilar metals, the joint must have an
accurate fit, with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles.
Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material.
Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications, as it
helps limit the heat input. The filler metal should be added
quickly, and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent
dilution of the base materials.

Process variations
Pulsed-current
In the pulsed-current mode, the welding current rapidly
alternates between two levels.
The higher current state is known as the pulse current,
while the lower current level is called the background
current.
During the period of pulse current, the weld area is
heated and fusion occurs. Upon dropping to the
background current, the weld area is allowed to cool
and solidify.
Pulsed-current GTAW has a number of advantages,
including lower heat input and consequently a reduction
in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces. In
addition, it allows for greater control of the weld pool,
and can increase weld penetration, welding speed, and
quality. A similar method, manual programmed GTAW,
allows the operator to program a specific rate and
magnitude of current variations, making it useful for
specialized applications.

Dabber
The Dabber variation is used to precisely place
weld metal on thin edges. The automatic
process replicates the motions of manual
welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld
area and dabbing (or oscillating) it into the
welding arc. It can be used in conjunction with
pulsed current, and is used to weld a variety of
alloys, including titanium, nickel, and tool steels.
Common applications include rebuilding seals in
jet engines and building up saw blades,
milling cutters, drill bits, and mower blades

Heat-affected zone

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the

darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone,
the medium gray the heat affected zone, and
the lightest gray the base material.

 The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base

material, either a metal or a thermoplastic, which has
had its microstructure and properties altered by welding.
The heat from the welding process and subsequent recooling causes this change in the area surrounding the
weld. The extent and magnitude of property change
depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input
by the welding process.
The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large
role if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Alternatively, a low
diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The
amount of heat inputted by the welding process plays an
important role as well, as processes like oxyfuel welding
use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ.
Processes like laser beam welding give a highly
concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small
HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with
the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input

 To calculate the heat input for arc welding

procedures, the formula used is:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I =

current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The
efficiency is dependent on the welding process used,
with shielded metal arc welding having a value of
0.75, gas metal arc welding and
submerged arc welding, 0.9, and
gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.

Types Of GTAW Power Source

Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC
Transformer AC (For Aluminium Welding Only)

Power Source
Provides Electric Energy Arc Heat
Drooping Characteristic
OCV Appx. 90V,
Current Range 40 A to 300 A ( Capacity Of M/s)
Arc Voltage 18V to 26V

Characteristic Of GTAW
Power Source
Drooping Constant Current
V
V1

Vertical
Curve

V2

A1 A2

High Frequency Unit

Provides High Voltage Electric Energy With Very
high Frequency 10000 Cycles / Sec.
Initiates low energy Arc / Spark & Ionize Air Gap.
Electrically charges Air Gap For welding Current to
Jump Across the Tungsten Tip & BM to Form An
Arc.
HF Gets Cut Off, Once Welding Arc Struck.

Water Cooling System

Provides Cooling Water To Welding Torch.
Cools Tungsten Rod, Torch handle & Welding
Cable.
Cooling Water Returns through Flexible Tube Which
Carries welding cable within.

Pedal Switch
When Pedal Pressed
Solenoid valve opens, Argon gas flows
High Frequency current jumps from
tungsten rod generating sparks
Welding current flows generating an
Switches system
arc across tungsten rod and work.
on And off in sequence
High frequency gets cut off from the
system & welding continues.
When Pedal Released
1 Current gets cut off, Arc extinguishes
2 Gas flow remains for few more
seconds before it stops.

Argon Gas Cylinder- Pressure Regulator +

Flow Meter

Cylinder Valve
Pressure gauges
Flow Meter
Flow Regulator

Cylinder Stores Argon At

High Pressure
Regulator Regulates
Cylinder Pressure to
Working Pressure

Pressure Regulator
Connection To Torch
Argon Cylinder

Flow Meter Controls Flow

Rate

Tools For GTAW

Head Screen
Hand gloves
Chipping Hammer
Wire Brush
Spanner Set

Filler Wire
Added Separately to the weld pool.
Compatible to base metal
Used in cut length for manual welding.
Used from layer wound spool for automatic
welding.
Sizes :- 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4 & 3 mm

ASME Classification Of Filler Wire

SS Filler Wire:
SFA-5.9, ER 308, 308L, 316, 316L, 347, 309
LAS Filler Wire:
SFA 5.28, ER 70S A1, ER 80S B2, ER90S D2,
ER 80S Ni2
CS Filler Wire:
SFA- 5.18 , ER 70S2
C = 0.07%, Mn = 0.9% 1.4%, Si = 0.4 0.7%, P = 0.025%, S = 0.035%

Dos & Don'ts In GTAW

Dos

Always Connect
Electrode Ve
Keep Always Flow
Meter Vertical
Check & Confirm
Argon Purity
Clean Groove & Filler
wire With Acetone
Grind Tungsten Tip to
Point

Donts

Dont Strike Arc With

Electrode + Ve
Dont strike Arc Without
Argon Flow
Dont Strike Arc By
touching Tungsten Rod
Dont Touch Weld Pool
With Tungsten Rod
Dont Lift and break Arc

Dos & Don'ts In GTAW

Dos

Break The Arc Only By

Pedal Switch
Lift The Torch only After
5 Sec Of Arc Break.
Ensure Pre Purging &
Post Purging of 5Sec
Ensure Argon Flow &
Water Circulation To
Torch

Donts

When Arc is Stopped Dont

Lift Torch immediately.
Dont Weld With Blend
Tungsten Rod
Dont Weld With Argon
Leaking Torch
Dont Weld Without Water
Circulation

Dos & Don'ts In GTAW

Dos

Provide Back Purging For

Single Sided Full
Penetration Welds
Use N2 or Argon as Back
Purging Gas For CS &
LAS
Use Argon As Back
Purging Gas For SS &
Non Ferrous Alloys

Donts

Dont Weld Single Sided

Full Penetration Welds
Without Back Purging
Dont Use N2 As Back
Purging Gas For Non
Ferrous Alloys
Dont Empty Ag Cylinders
Fully.

Defects In GTAW
1. Cracks
3. Porosity
5.Lack Of Penetration
7.Overlap
9. Under Flush
11. Tungsten Inclusion

2. Lack Of Fusion
4. Undercut
6. Excess Penetration
8. Suck Back
10. Burn Through
11.Stray Arcing

Crack
1)
2)
3)
4)

Cause
Wrong Consumable
Wrong Procedure
Improper Preheat
Inadequate Thickness
In Root Pass
crack

1)
2)
3)
4)

Remedy
Use Right Filler Wire
Qualify Procedure
Preheat Uniformly
Add More Filler Wire
in root Pass

Lack Of Fusion
Cause
Remedy
1) Inadequate Current
1) Use Right Current
2) Wrong Torch angle
2) Train /Qualify welder
3) Improper bead placement 3) Train/Qualify Welder

Lack Of Fusion

Porosity
Cause
1) Impure Argon Gas
2) Argon Leak Within Torch
3) Defective Filler Wire
4) Wet surface of BM
5) Rusted / Pitted Filler wire
6) Improper Flow Of Argon

Porosity

Remedy
1) Replace Argon Cylinder
2) Replace Leaking Torch
3) Replace Filler Wire
4) Clean & Warm BM
5) Clean Filler Wire
6) Provide Gas lens

. .

Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Voltage
3) Improper Torch angle

Under cut

Remedy
1) Reduce the Current
2) Reduce Arc length
3) Train & Qualify the Welder

Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Excess Root Face
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Over size Filler Wire
4) Wrong Direction of Arc
5) Improper bead placement
6) Improper weaving technique
* Applicable to SSFPW

LOP

Remedy
1) Reduce Root Face
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Reduce Filler Wire size
4) Train / Qualify Welder
5) Train / Qualify Welder
6) Train & Qualify Welder

Excess Penetration*
Cause
1)Excess root opening
2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Excess Weaving
5) Wrong Direction Of Arc
* Applicable to SSFPW

Excess Penetration

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Remedy
Reduce root gap
Reduce Current
Increase Root face
Train Welder
Train Welder

Overlap
Cause
1) Wrong Direction Of Arc
2) Inadequate Current
3) Excess Filler Wire
Overlap

Remedy
1) Train & Qualify Welder
2) Increase Current
3) Reduce Filler Metal

Suck Back*
Cause
1) Excess weaving in root
2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Wrong Electrode angle

Remedy
1) Reduce weaving
2) Reduce Current
3) Increase root face
4) Train / Qualify Welder

* Applicable to SSFPW in 4G, 3G & 2G

Suck Back

Under flush
Cause

Remedy

1) Inadequate weld beads in

1) Weld some more beads
final layer
in final layer
2) Inadequate understanding on 2) Train / Qualify welder
weld reinforcement
3) Wrong selection of filler wire 3) Train / Qualify Welder
size

Under flush

Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Improper weaving

Remedy
1) Reduce the Current
2) Reduce root opening
3) Increase root face
4) Train / Qualify Welder

*Applicable to root pass

Burn trough

Tungsten Inclusion
Cause
1) Ineffective HF
2) Improper Starting of Arc
3) Tungsten Tip Comes in
Contact With Weld

Tungsten Inclusion

Remedy
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Never Touch Weld
With Tungsten Rod
3) Train / Qualify welder

Stray Arcing
Cause
Remedy
1) HF Not In Operation
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Inadequate Skill of Welder 2) Train the Welder
Arc Strikes

Gas Metal Arc Welding

What Is GMAW ?
A Fusion Welding Process Semi Automatic
Arc Between Consumable Electrode &Work
Arc Generated by Electric Energy From a
Rectifier / Thyrester / Inverter
Filler Metal As Electrode Continuously fed From
Layer Wound Spool.
Filler Wire Driven to Arc By Wire Feeder through
Welding Torch
Arc & Molten Pool Shielded by Inert Gas through
Torch / Nozzle

Gas Metal Arc Welding

MIG Shielding Gas Ar / Ar + O2 / Ar + Co2
MAG Shielding Gas Co2
FCAW Shielding Gas Co2 With Flux cored
Wire
Note:- Addition of 1 5% of O2 or 5 10% of Co2 in Ar.
increases wetting action of molten metal

Power Source For MIG / MAG

Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC

Characteristic Of GMAW Power

Source
Constant V / Linear Characteristic
V

Appx. Horizontal
Curve
V1
V2

A1

A2

Current & Polarity

DC- Electrode +Ve
Stable Arc
Smooth Metal Transfer
Relatively Low Spatter
Good Weld Bead Characteristics

DC- Electrode Ve, Seldom Used

AC- Commercially Not In use

Accessories Of GMAW

Power Source
Wire Feed Unit
Shielding Gas Cylinder, Pressure gauges/
Regulator, Flow meter (Heater For Co2 )

Welding Torch
Water Cooling System (For Water cooled Torch)
Earthing Cable With Clamp

Tools For GMAW

Head Screen With DIN 13 / 14 Dark Glass

Hand Wire Brush / Grinder With Wire Wheel
Cutting Pliers
Hand Gloves
Chipping Hammer / Chisel & hammer
Spanner Set
Cylinder Key
Anti-spatter Spray
Earthing Cable With Clamp

GMAW Torch
On / Off Switch
Shielding Gas

Torch Handle

Spring Conduit

Gas Cup
Arc

Nozzle Tip
Filler Wire - Electrode
Job

Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Shielding Gas
Switch

Heater
(Only For
Co2)

Solenoid
Valve

Shielding Gas
Cylinder
Copper Cup
Electrode /
Wire
Arc

Welding Torch
Wire Inside Spring Lining
Contact Tip
Argon / Co2
Shielding
Work

Torch With Cable Max. 3Mtr

Wire Feeder
Wire
Spool

Power Source
With Inductance

Types Of Wire Feeding In

GMAW
Push Type
Wire fed in to The torch by Pushing through Flexible
Conduit From A Remote Spool

Pull Type
Feed Rollers Mounted on The Torch Handle Pulls the
Wire From A Remote spool

Self Contained
Wire Feeder & The Spool On the Torch

Function Of Shielding Gas In

GMAW

Prevents Air contamination of weld Pool

Prevents Contamination During Metal Transfer
Increases fluidity of molten metal
Minimizes the spatter generation
Helps in even & uniform bead finish

Shielding Gases For GMAW

MIG:
Argon Or Helium
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
MIG: Ar + 1 to 2 % O2, Wire With Add. Mn & Si
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
MIG: Ar + 5 to 20 % Co2 Wire With Add. Mn & Si
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
MAG: Co2 With Solid Wire
For CS & LAS
FCAW: Co2 With Flux Cored Wire
For CS, LAS & SS Overlay

ASME Classification For CS

GMAW Wire
SFA 5.18 : - CS Solid Wire
ER 70 S 2, ER 70 S 3
ER 70 S 6, ER 70 S 7
SFA 5.20 :- CS Flux Cored Wire
E 71 T-1, E 71 T-2 ( Co2 Gas )
E 71 T-1M, E 71 T-2M ( Ar + Co2 Mix)

GMAW CS Wire
Generally Copper Coated
Prevents Oxidation / rusting in Storage
Promotes Electric Conductivity in Arcing

Available In Solid & Flux Cored

Size in mm 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4, 3

Manganese & Silicon ( Mn 1 2 %, Si Max 1%)

Act As Deoxidizing Agents
Eliminate Porosity
Increase Wetting Of Molten Pool

Metal Transfer In MIG

Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer
Globular Transfer
Spray Transfer

Metal Transfer In MIG

Up to 120A

CS Solid Wire 1.2 mm

120 to 250A

14 22V

Dip/Short Circuiting
Co2 or Ar

16 24 V

Globular
Co2 or Ar

Above230A
24 35 V

Spray
Only Ar / Ar+O2

Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer

Wire In Contact With Molten Pool 20 to 200 times per Second

Operates in Low Amps & Volts Less Deposition
Best Suitable for Out of Position Welding
Suitable for Welding Thin Sheets
Relatively Large opening of Root Can be Welded
Less Distortion
Best Suitable for Tacking in Set up
Prone to Get Lack of Fusion in Between Beads

Globular Transfer
Metal transferred in droplets of Size grater than
wire diameter
Operates in Moderate Amps & Volts Better
Deposition
Common in Co2 Flux Cored and Solid Wire
Suitable for General purpose Welding

Spray Transfer

Metal transferred in multiples of small droplets

100 to 1000 Droplets per Second
Metal Spray Axially Directed
Electrode Tip Remains pointed
Applicable Only With Inert Gas Shielding
Not
With Co2
Operates in Higher Amps & Volts Higher Deposition
Rate
Not Suitable for Welding in Out of Position.
Suitable for Welding Deep Grooves

Pulsed Spray Welding

Power Source Provides Two different
Current LevelsBackground and Peakat
regular interval
Background & Peak are above and
below the Average Current
Best Suitable for Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Bead Shape and Finish

Synergic Pulse GMAW

Parameters of Pulsed Current (Frequency, Amplitude,
Duration, Background Current) Related to Wire feed
Rate
One Droplet detaches with each pulse
An Electronic Control unit synchronizes wire feed
Rate with Pulse Parameters
Best Suitable for Most Critical Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Open Root penetration, Bead Shape
and Finish

GMAW Process Variables

Current
Voltage
Travel Speed
Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Electrode Inclination
Electrode Size
Shielding Gas & Flow Rate
Welding Position

Parameter For 1.2 FC Wire

Current 200 to 240 A

Voltage 22-24
Travel Speed 150 to 250 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 15 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2, 12 L/Min

Parameter For 1.2 Solid Wire

Current 180 to 220 A

Voltage 20-22
Travel Speed 150 to 200 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 10 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2 12 L/Min

Results In Change Of Parameters

Increase In Current
More deposition, More Penetration, More BM Fusion
Increase In Voltage
More Weld Bead Width, Less Penetration, Less Reinforcement, Excess
Spatter
Increase In Travel Speed
Decrease in Penetration, Decrease in Bead Width,
Decrease In Gas Flow rate
Results In porosity
Long Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Excess Weld Deposit With Less Arc intensity, Poor Bead Finish,
Shallow Penetration

Common Defects In GMAW

1. Porosity
3. Lack Of Fusion
5. Over Lap
7. Crack
9. Burn Through
11. Unstable Arc

2. Spatters
4. Under Cut
6. Slag
8. Lack Of Penetration
10. Convex Bead
12. Wire Stubbing

Porosity
Cause

Remedy

1) Less Mn & Si In Wire

2) Rusted / Unclean BM / Groove
3) Rusted wire
4) Inadequate Shielding Gas

1) Use High Mn & Si Wire

2) Clean & warm the BM
3) Replace the Wire
4) Check & Correct Flow Rate

Porosity

. .

Spatters
Cause

Remedy

1) Low Voltage
2) Inadequate Inductance
3) Rusted BM surface
4) Rusted Core wire
5) Quality Of Gas

1) Increase Voltage
2) Increase Inductance
3) Clean BM surface
4) Replace By Rust Free wire
5) Change Over To Ar + Co2

Spatters

Lack Of Fusion
Cause

Remedy

1) Inadequate Current

1) Use Right Current

2) Inadequate Voltage
3) Wrong Polarity
4) Slow Travel Speed
5) Excessive Oxide On Joint

2) Use Right Voltage

3) Connect Ele. + Ve
4) Increase Travel speed
5) Clean Weld Joint

Lack Of Fusion

Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Voltage
2) Excess Current
3) Improper Torch angle
4) Excess Travel Speed
Under cut

Remedy
1) Reduce Voltage
2) Reduce Current
3) Train & Qualify the Welder
4) Reduce Travel Speed

Overlap
Cause

Remedy

1) Too Long Stick Out

1) Reduce Stick Out

2) Inadequate Voltage

2) Increase the Voltage

Overlap

Slag
Cause
1) Inadequate Cleaning
2) Inadequate Current
3) Wrong Torch angle
4) Improper bead placement

Slag

Remedy
1) Clean each bead
2) Use Right Current
3) Train / Qualify welder
4) Train / Qualify Welder

Crack
Cause

Remedy

1) Incorrect Wire Chemistry 1) Use Right Wire

2) Increase wire Feed
2) Too Small Weld Bead
3) Preheat Uniformly
3) Improper Preheat
4) Post heating or ISR
4) Excessive Restrain

crack

Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Too Narrow Groove Angle
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Too Low Welding current
4) Wrong Torch angle
5) Puddle Roll In Front Of Arc
6) Long Stick Out
* Applicable to SSFPW

LOP

Remedy
1) Widen The Groove
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Increase Current
4) Train / Qualify Welder
5) Correct Torch Angle
6) Reduce Stick Out

Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Too Low Travel Speed
5) Quality Of Gas

Burn trough

Remedy
1) Reduce the Current
2) Reduce root opening
3) Increase root face
4) Increase Speed
5) Use Ar + Co2
*Applicable to root pass

Convex Bead Finish

Cause
1) Low Current
2) Low Voltage
3) Low Travel Speed
4) Low Inductance
5) Too Narrow Groove
Uneven bead finish

Remedy
1) Increase Current
2) Increase Voltage
3) Increase Travel Speed
4) Increase Inductance
5) Increase Groove Width

Unstable arc
Cause
1) Improper Wire Feed
2) Improper Gas Flow
3) Twisted Torch Conduit

Remedy
1) Check Wire Feeder
2) Check Flow Meter
3) Straighten Torch Cab

Wire Stubbing
Cause
1) Too Low Voltage
2) Too High Inductance
3) Excess Slope
4) Too Long Stick Out

Remedy
1) Increase Voltage
2) Reduce Inductance
3) Adjust Slope
4) Reduce Stick Out

Important Terminology used in

Critical Welding

Preheating
Post Heating or Dehydrogenation
Intermediate Stress leaving
Inter pass Temperature
Post Weld Heat Treatment

What Is Preheating?
Heating the base metal along the weld joint to a
predetermined minimum temperature immediately
before starting the weld.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever
possible
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalks prior to
starting the weld

Why Preheating?
Preheating eliminates possible cracking of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Hardenable low alloy steels of all thickness
Carbon steels of thickness above 25 mm.
Restrained welds of all thickness
Preheating temperature vary from 75C to 200C
depending on hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain

How does Preheating Eliminate Crack?

Preheating promotes slow cooling of weld and
HAZ
Slow cooling softens or prevents hardening of
weld and HAZ
Soft material not prone to crack even in restrained
condition

What Is Post Heating?

Raising the pre heating temperature of the weld joint to a
predetermined temperature range (250 C to 350 C) for
a minimum period of time (3 Hrs) before the weld cools
down to room temperature.
Post heating performed when welding is completed or
terminated any time in between.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever possible
Temperature verified by thermo chalks during the period

Why Post Heating?

Post heating eliminates possible delayed cracking
of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Thicker hardenable low alloy steels
Restrained hardenable welds of all thickness
Post heating temperature and duration depends on
hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain

How does Post Heating Eliminate

Crack?
SMAW introduces hydrogen in weld metal
Entrapped hydrogen in weld metal induces
delayed cracks unless removed before cooling to
room temperature
Retaining the weld at a higher temperature for a
longer duration allows the hydrogen to come out
of weld

What Is Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Heat treating a subassembly in a furnace to a
predetermined cycle immediately on completion of
critical restrained weld joint / joints without
allowing the welds to go down the pre heat
temperature. Rate of heating, Soaking temperature,
Soaking time and rate of cooling depends on
material quality and thickness
Applicable to
Highly restrained air hardenable material

Why Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Restrained welds in air hardenable steel highly prone
to crack on cooling to room temperature.
Cracks due to entrapped hydrogen and built in stress
Intermediate stress relieving relieves built in stresses
and entrapped hydrogen making the joint free from
crack prone

What Is Inter- Pass Temperature?

The temperature of a previously layed weld bead
immediately before depositing the next bead over
it
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalk prior
to starting next bead
Applicable to
Stainless Steel
Carbon Steel & LAS with minimum impact

Why Inter Pass Temperature?

Control on inter pass temperature avoids over
heating, there by
Refines the weld metal with fine grains
Improves the notch toughness properties
Minimize the loss of alloying elements in
welds
Reduces the distortion

What Is Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Heat treating an assembly on completion of all
applicable welding, in an enclosed furnace with
controlled heating/cooling rate and soaking at a
specific temperature for a specific time.
Rate of heating, Soaking temperature, Soaking time
and rate of cooling depends on material quality and
thickness
Applicable to
All type of CS & LAS

Why Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Welded joints retain internal stresses within the
structure
HAZ of welds remains invariably hardened
Post Weld Heat Treatment relieves internal stresses
and softens HAZ. This reduces the cracking
tendency of the equipment in service

Weldability
The weldability of a material refers to its
ability to be welded. Many metals and
thermoplastics can be welded, but some
are easier to weld than others. It greatly
influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process
to use.

Steels
The weldability of steels is inversely proportional to a property known as the hardenability of the
steel, which measures the ease of forming martensite during heat treatment. The hardenability of
steel depends on its chemical composition, with greater quantities of carbon and other alloying
elements resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a lower weldability. In order to be able to
judge alloys made up of many distinct materials, a measure known as the
equivalent carbon content is used to compare the relative weldabilities of different alloys by
comparing their properties to a plain carbon steel. The effect on weldability of elements like
chromium and vanadium, while not as great as carbon, is more significant than that of copper
and nickel, for example. As the equivalent carbon content rises, the weldability of the alloy
decreases. The disadvantage to using plain carbon and low-alloy steels is their lower strength
there is a trade-off between material strength and weldability. High strength, low-alloy steels were
developed especially for welding applications during the 1970s, and these generally easy to weld
materials have good strength, making them ideal for many welding applications.
Stainless steels, because of their high chromium content, tend to behave differently with respect
to weldability than other steels. Austenitic grades of stainless steels tend to be the most weldable,
but they are especially susceptible to distortion due to their high coefficient of thermal expansion.
Some alloys of this type are prone to cracking and reduced corrosion resistance as well. Hot
cracking is possible if the amount of ferrite in the weld is not controlledto alleviate the problem,
an electrode is used that deposits a weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite. Other types
of stainless steels, such as ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, are not as easily welded, and
must often be preheated and welded with special electrodes.

Aluminum
The weldability of aluminum alloys varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used. Aluminum alloys are
susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed to lower the heat input. Preheating reduces
the temperature gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties of the
base material and should not be used when the base material is restrained. The design of the joint can be changed as well, and a more
compatible filler alloy can be selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking. Aluminum alloys should also be cleaned prior to welding,
with the goal of removing all oxides, oils, and loose particles from the surface to be welded. This is especially important because of an
aluminum weld's susceptibility to porosity due to hydrogen and dross due to oxygen.
[edit]
References
Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN 9994925822.
Residual stress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Residual stresses are stresses that remain after the original cause of the stresses has been removed. Residual stresses occur for a
variety of reasons, including inelastic deformations and heat treatment. Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken
up during welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the finished weldment cools, some areas cool
and contract more than others, leaving residual stresses. Castings may also have large residual stresses due to uneven cooling.
While un-controlled residual stresses are undesirable, many designs rely on them. For example, toughened glass and pre-stressed
concrete depend on them to prevent brittle failure. Similarly, a gradient in martensite formation leaves residual stress in some swords with
particularly hard edges (notably the katana), which can prevent the opening of edge cracks. In certain types of gun barrels made with two
tubes forced together, the inner tube is compressed while the outer tube stretches, preventing cracks from opening in the rifling when the
gun is fired. Parts are often heated or dunked in liquid nitrogen to aid assembly.
Press fits are the most common intentional use of residual stress. Automotive wheel studs, for example are pressed into holes on the
wheel hub. The holes are smaller than the studs, requiring force to drive the studs into place. The residual stresses fasten the parts
together. Nails are another example.