MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN 1
MEC 531

Part B:
Design for Strength

By:
NURZAKI IKHSAN

Chapter 2:
Design for Strength
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Static Strength
Failure theories
Stress Concentration
Fatigue Strength.
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

Static strength
In engineering practices, there are many cases
in which machine members are subjected to
combined stresses due to simultaneous action
of either tensile or compressive stresses
combined with shear stresses. E.g. propeller
shaft, crankshaft.
Understanding the basic principal stresses are
important to determine the yield strength.

Static strength
Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Simplifying a body by isolating each element with
its physical attributes and showing all forces that
are acting on it to be in an equilibrium state.

Static strength

Static strength

Static strength
Four types of internal loading
Normal force, N.
This force act perpendicular to the area
Shear Force, V.
This force lies in the plane of the area (parallel)
Torsional Moment or Torque, T.
This torque is developed when the external loads tend
to twist one segment of the body with respect to the
other
Bending Moment, M.
This moment is developed when the external loads
tend to bend the body. Normal force, N. This force act
perpendicular to the area.

Static strength
Normal Stress
The intensity of the force acting normal to A

Fz
z lim
A0 A

It called as tensile stress if the normal force pulls and

called as compressive stress when it pushes.

Static strength
Shear Stress:
Stress that acts parallel to the surface of a material
creating shear.
The intensity of the force acting tangent to A
Shear
Stress
Single

V
V
2
A r

Double

V ( F / 2)

A r2

Static
strength
The single lower
arm for
suspension
system of race-car prototype is pinned

Review 1
at C and supported Exercise
by the shock
absorber BD. The pin

B has a

diameter of 10 mm, and pin C has a

diameter of 12 mm. Both pin are
subjected to double shear and pin B
made of material having shear failure
stress of B,fail=100 Mpa while Pin C
C,fail=60

Mpa.

If

this

suspension

system is designed to support a load

of P = 2000N, determine: allowable
shear stress at pin B abd C.

Static strength
Normal Strain
Deformation of a body by changes in length of line
segments and the changes in the angles between.

avg

s 's

Shear Strain
The change in angle between two line segments that were
originally perpendicular

nt '
2

Static strength
Torque:
Moment that tends to a twist a member about its longitudinal
axis.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid
circular shafts remain plain and
undistorted because a circular shaft
is axisymmetric.
Cross-sections of noncircular (nonaxisymmetric) shafts are distorted
when subjected to torsion.

Static strength

max

Tc
T

and
J
J

Solid Shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can
be determined using an area
element in the form a differential
ring, thus:

4
J c
2
Tubular shaft
The polar moment of inertia J can
be determined by substrating J for
a shaft radius ci from that
determined for a shaft of radius c0,
thus;

4 4

co ci
2

Static strength
Exercise Review 2
The motor delivers a torque of 50 N.m to the shaft AB. This
torque is transmitted to shaft CD using the gears at E and F.
Determine the equilibrium torque T on shaft CD and the
maximum shear stress in each shaft. The bearings B, C, and D
allow free rotation of the shafts.

Static strength

Poissons Ratio

Linear Elastic
Material
Behavior

E= Modulus of Elasticity / Youngs modulus

G= Shear Modulus of Elasticity / Modulus of Rigidity

x
v
y

Static strength
Bending Moment
Rotational forces within the beam that cause bending. At
any point within a beam, the Bending Moment is the sum
of: each external force multiplied by the distance that is
perpendicular to the direction of the force.
The maximum normal stress due to bending,

Mc M

I
S

Consider a rectangular beam cross section,

3
1
I 12 bh
S
16 bh3 16 Ah
c
h 2

Static strength
Principal stresses occur on the principal planes of stress with
zero shearing stresses.

max, min

x y

tan 2 p

x y

2 xy

x y

2
xy

Note : defines two angles

separated by 90o

x for
ave
Maximum shearing stress occurs

max R

x y

y
tan 2 s x
2 xy

2
xy

Note : defines two angles separated

by 90o and offset from p by 45o

Static strength
Exercise Review 4
The engine crane is used to support the engine,which has a
weight of 6kN
.Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the boom ABCwhen
it is in the horizontal position shown.

Stress Concentration

All the shape or holes on parts and components

have potential to contribute to failure or cracks.
Avoiding cross-section, holes, notches, shoulders,
etc. is quite impossible in machine members.
Examples of machine members leading to stress
concentration:

Stress Concentration

Any discontinuity increases the stress in the

surrounding area of the discontinuity which acts as
the Stress Riser.
The regions in which they occur are called area of
stress concentration.
Ratio of maximum and nominal stress is known as
stress concentration factor or kt (normal stress)
and kts (shear stress).

The factors relates the maximum stress at the

discontinuity over the nominal stress (free from
the stress riser).
The possibility of crack initiated is higher
especially when stress concentration factor is
greater than critical stress concentration.

Stress Concentration

Stress distribution at a section A-A

passing through the hole and
another section BB away from the
hole.
Stress distribution away from the
hole is uniform but at AA there is a
sharp rise in stress in the vicinity of
the hole.
Stress concentration factor is
defined as:
where av at section AA is simply:

This is the theoretical or geometric stress concentration

factor and the factor is not affected by the material
properties.

Stress Concentration

For an elliptical hole in an infinite

plate, subjected to a uniform tensile
stress 1, stress distribution around
the discontinuity is disturbed and at
points remote from the discontinuity
the effect is insignificant.
It is shown as:
If a=b the hole reduces to a circular one and
therefore 3 = 31 which gives kt =3 (circular
hole).
If, however b is large compared to a then the
stress at the edge of transverse crack is very
large and consequently k is also very large.
If b is small compared to a then the stress at
the edge of a longitudinal crack does not rise
and kt =1.

Stress Concentration
A number of methods are available to reduce stress
concentration in machine parts:
1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may
change gradually.
2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.
3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number
of small notches rather than a long one. This reduces the
stress concentration to a large extent.
4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it
is preferable to provide a narrow notch than a wide notch.
5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.

Stress Concentration

Failure theories
Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more
pieces; has become permanently distorted, thus ruining
its geometry; has had its reliability downgraded; or has
had its function compromised, whatever the reason.

Failure theories

Why we need Failure Theories?

To design structural components and calculate
margin of safety.
To guide in materials development.
To determine weak and strong directions.

Ductile failure

A
ductile
material
deforms
significantly before fracturing.
(extensive plastic deformation
and
energy
absorption
(toughness) before fracture
Ductility is measured by %
elongation at the fracture point.
Materials with 5% or more
elongation are considered ductile.
Imagine that the matrix of
circles shown below represent
an isotropic material.

Ductile failure
As the material is being
loaded it stretches linearly. As
the material is being pulled
further apart, its resistance
becomes greater.
The material continues to stretch
linearly until the yield stress of
the material is reached.
At this point the material
begins to behave differently.
Planes of maximum shear
exist in the material at 45,
and the material begins to
slide along these planes.

Ductile failure

The
sliding
between
relative planes of material
allow the specimen to
deform noticeably without
any increase in stress. We
call this a yield of the
material.

Brittle failure

Brittle material yields very little

before fracturing (Little plastic
deformation and low energy
absorption before failure)
The yield strength is
approximately the same as the
ultimate strength in tension.
The ultimate strength in
compression is much larger than
The
brittlestrength
material
also
the ultimate
in tension.
behaves in a linear fashion as
it is being loaded.

Brittle failure

The material continues to

stretch as more and more load
is applied.
When the normal stress in the
specimen reaches the ultimate
stress, ult, the material fails
suddenly by fracture. This tensile
failure occurs without warning,
and
is
initiated
by
stress
concentrations
due
to
irregularities in the material at
the microscopic level.

Failure theories
There is no universal theory of failure for the general case of
material properties and stress state. Instead, over the years
several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to
todays accepted practices most designers do.
The generally accepted theories are:
Ductile materials (yield criteria)

Maximum shear stress (MSS) a.k.a Tresca Theory

Distortion energy (DE) a.k.a Von Misses

Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)

Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
Maximum normal stress (MNS)
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
Modified Mohr (MM)

Failure theories
Ductile Materials -Maximum-Shear-Stress
Theory
The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts
that
yielding
begins
whenever
the
maximum shear stress in any element
equals or exceeds the maximum shear
stress in a tension test specimen of the
same material when that specimen begins
to yield.
The MSS theory is also referred to as the
Tresca or aGuest
Assuming
plane theory.
stress problem with A B, there are three cases to
consider

Case 1: A B 0. For this case, 1 = A and 3 = 0.

Case 2: A 0 B . Here, 1 = A and 3 = B
Case 3: 0 A B . For this case, 1 = 0 and 3 = B ,

Failure theories
Ductile Materials-Distortion-Energy Theory
The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs
when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or
exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield
in simple tension or compression of the same material.
For unit volume subjected to any three-dimensional stress
state designated by the stresses 1, 2, and 3, effective
stress is usually called the von Mises stress, as

Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von

Mises stress can be written as

and for plane stress,

Failure theories
Ductile Materials-Distortion-Energy Theory
Consider a case of pure shear xy ,where for plane
stress
x = y = 0. For yield

Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by th

distortion
energy theory is

Failure theories

oulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile Materials

Not all materials have compressive strengths equal to
their corresponding tensile values.
The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests:
tension, compression, and shear, to yielding if the
material can yield, or to rupture.
The practical difficulties lies in the form of the failure
envelope.
A variation of Mohrs theory, called the CoulombMohr theory or the internal-friction theory,
assumes that the boundary is straight.
For plane stress, when the two nonzero principal
stresses are A B , we have a situation similar to
Case
1: A
B for
0. For
case,
1 = A and 3 = 0. Equation (522)
the three
cases
given
thethis
MSS
theory
reduces to a failure condition of

Case 2: A 0 B . Here, 1 = A and 3 = B , and Eq. (522) becomes

Failure theories
Failure of Ductile Materials Summary

Either
the
maximum-shear-stress
theory or the distortion-energy theory
is acceptable for design and analysis of
materials that would fail in a ductile
manner.
For design purposes the maximumshear-stress theory is easy, quick to
use, and conservative.
If the problem is to learn why a part
failed, then the distortion-energy
theory may be the best to use.
For ductile materials with unequal yield
strengths, Syt in tension and Syc in
compression, the Mohr theory is the
best available.

Failure theories
Brittle Materials-Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
The
maximum-normal-stress
(MNS)
theory states that failure occurs
whenever one of the three principal
stresses equals or exceeds the
strength.
For a general stress state in the ordered
form 1 2 3. This theory then
predicts that failure occurs whenever

where Sut and Suc are the ultimate tensile

and compressive strengths, respectively,
given as positive quantities.

Failure theories
Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

Brittle materials have true strain

at fracture is 0.05 or less.
In the first quadrant the data
appear on both sides and along
the failure curves of maximumnormal-stress, Coulomb-Mohr, and
modified Mohr. All failure curves
are the same, and data fit well.
In the fourth quadrant the
modified Mohr theory represents
the data best.
In the third quadrant the points A,
B, C, and D are too few to make
any suggestion concerning a
fracture locus.

Fatigue Strength

Machine members are found to fail under the action of

fluctuating stresses. The actual maximum stresses were
well below the ultimate strength of the material, and even
below the yield strength.
Properties of materials and the material behavior can be
observed using the stress-strain diagrams or S-N curve
The most distinguishing characteristic of the fatigue failure
is that the stresses have been repeated a very large
number of times.
Fatigue failure gives no warning. It is sudden and total, and
hence dangerous.
Example of fatigue failure: shaft of electric motor, which
rotate at 1725 rev/min., that means it have stresses in
tension and compression 1725 each min.
A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle
fracture as the fracture surface are flat and perpendicular to
the stress axis with the absence of necking

Fatigue Strength

Static conditions : loads are applied gradually, to give

sufficient time for the strain to fully develop.
Variable conditions : stresses vary with time or fluctuate
between different levels, also called repeated, alternating, or
fluctuating stresses.
When machine members are found to have failed under
fluctuating stresses, the actual maximum stresses were well
below the ultimate strength of the material, even below
yielding strength.
Since these failures are due to stresses repeating for a large
number of times, they are called fatigue failures.
When machine parts fails statically, the usually develop a
very large deflection, thus visible warning can be observed in
advance; a fatigue failure gives no warning!

Fatigue Strength
Fatigue failures may contribute in 2 areas of failure:
1. Due to progressive development of crack.
2. Due to sudden fracture.
Cracks are initiated at the discontinuity, for example:
Change in cross-section.
A key way.
A hole.
Fatigue failure is quite different from a static brittle
fracture as it
arise from three stages of development.
1. Crack initiation.
2. Crack propagation.
3. Final catastrophic failure.

Fatigue Strength
Stage 1: Crack initiation

Near stress concentration

90% of fatigue life is trying to initiate a crack
Mechanism intrusion and extrusion
Formation of persistent slip bands (PSB)
Only micron meter (m)
These cracks are not usually visible to the naked
eyes).
Stage 2: Crack propagation

Propagation of microcracks to macrocracks forming

parallel plateau like fracture surfaces separated by
longitudinal ridges (in the form of dark and light bands
referred to as beach marks).
Crack increase because of stress cycle.
Crack propagate normal to loading direction.
10% of fatigue life.
Mechanism blunting and reshaping.

Fatigue Strength

Stage 3: Final catastrophic failure

Remaining area (ligament) cannot

sustain loading anymore.
Unstable (significant) crack
propagation and rapid failure.
Fracture when the remaining material
cannot support the loads.

initiation
propagation
fracture

Fatigue Strength

Fatigue Strength

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Let
be the number of cycles to fatigue for a specified level
of loading
-For
fatigue
-For

, generally classified as low-cycle

, generally classified as high-cycle fatigue

Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis

are
1.stress-life method : is based on stress only, least
accurate especially for low-cycle fatigue; however, it is the
most traditional and easiest to implement for a wide range
of applications.
2.strain-life method : involves more detailed analysis,
especially good for low-cycle fatigue; however, idealizations
in the methods make it less practical when uncertainties

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Stress-Life Method : R. R. Moore

The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the R.

R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam machine.
Specimens in R.R. Moore machines are subjected to
pure bending by means of added weights.
Other fatigue-testing machines are available for
applying fluctuating or reversed axial stresses,
torsional stresses, or combined stresses to the test
specimens.

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Stress-Life Method : R. R. Moore
S-N Curve

In R. R. Moore machine tests, a

constant bending load is applied,
and the number of revolutions of the
beam required for failure is recorded.

Tests at various bending stress levels

are conducted.

These results are plotted as an S-N

diagram.

Log plot is generally used to

emphasize the bend in the S-N
curve.

Ordinate of S-N curve is fatigue

strength,
,
at a specific
number of cycles

S-N diagram from the results of completely

reversed axial fatigue test. Material : UNS
G41300 steel.

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Stress-Life Method : R. R. Moore
Characteristics of S-N Curves for Metals

In the case of steels, a knee occurs in

the graph, and beyond this knee
failure will not occur, no matter how
great the number of cycles - this
knee is called the endurance limit,
denoted as
Non-ferrous metals and alloys do not
have an endurance limit, since their
S-N curve never become horizontal.
For materials with no endurance
limit, the fatigue strength is normally
reported at
is the simple tension test

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
The Strain-Life Method

The best approach yet advanced to explain

the nature of fatigue failure. However, it
needs to compound several idealizations, and
so uncertainties will exist in the results.

A fatigue failure begins at a local stress

raisers.
When
the
stress
at
these
discontinuity exceeds the elastic limit,
plastic strain occurs.

Bairstow using experiments to verify that

elastic limits of iron and steel can be
changed by the cyclic variation of stress.

A stress-strain plot of controlled cyclic loads

could show the strength variation due to
stress repetitions.

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
The Strain-Life Method
Manson-Coffin Relationship

The total-strain amplitude is the sum of

elastic and plastic strain

is the fatigue strength coefficient, the true stress corresponding to

fracture in one reversal.
is the fatigue strength exponent as the slope of the elastic-strain line.
is the fatigue ductility coefficient, the true strain corresponding to
fracture in one reversal.
is the fatigue strength exponent as the slope of the elastic-strain line.

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Method
Fatigue cracking consists three
stages
Stage I : crack initiation,
invisible to the observer.
Stage II : crack propagation,
most of a cracks life
Stage III : final fracture due
to rapid acceleration of crack
growth.

Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue Failure

Analysis
Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method
Paris Law for Crack Growth

Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage II, the crack

growth can be approximated by the Paris equation as
is the variation in stress intensity factor due to
fluctuating stresses.
crack length

number of cycles

material constants

Endurance Limit for Steels

For steels, the endurance limit

relates directly to the minimum
tensile strength as observed in
experimental measurements.
From the observations, the
endurance of steels can be
estimated as

with the prime mark on the

endurance limit referring to the
rotating-beam specimen.

Fatigue Strength : Basics

Low-cycle fatigue considers the range from N=1 to

about 1000 cycles.
In this region, the fatigue strength
is only slightly
smaller than the tensile strength
.
High-cycle fatigue domain extends from 103 to the
endurance limit life (106 to 107 cycles).
Experience has shown that high-cycle fatigue data
are rectified by a logarithmic transform to both stress
and cycles-to-failure.

Fatigue Strength : General

For actual mechanical applications, the fatigue
strength calculated above is extended to a more
general form as

: cycle to failure

Fatigue Strength at Different N

Define the fatigue strength at a specified number of cycles as

By combining the elastic strain relations, we can get

Define f as the fraction of tensile strength. The value of f at 103 cycles is

then

To find b, substitute the endurance strength and the corresponding

cycles and solving for b as

For example, for steels when

Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

The endurance limit of the rotating-beam specimen might
differ from the actual application due to the following
differences from laboratory tests.
Material : composition, basis of failure, variability
Manufacturing : method, heat treatment, fretting
corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
Environment : corrosion, temperature, stress state,
relaxation times.
Design : size, shape, life, stress state, stress
concentration, speed, fretting, galling
Modifying factors of surface condition, size, loading,
temperature, and miscellaneous items are proposed by Marin
to quantify these differences.

Marin Modification Factors on Endurance

Limit

where
= surface condition modification factor
= size modification factor
= load modification factor
= temperature modification factor
= reliability factor
= miscellaneous-effects modification factor
= rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit

Marin Modification Factors on Endurance

Limit
Surface Factor :
It depends on the finishing quality of the actual part surface
and on the tensile strength of the part material. It can be
calculated as

Loading Factor :
The axial and torsional loadings results in different endurance
limit than that of a standard rotating-bending test. The load
factor applies to other loading conditions as

Marin Modification Factors on Endurance

Limit
Size Factor :
the size factor has been evaluated using 133 set of data points
in the literature. For axial loading,
. For bending and
torsion can be expressed as

Temperature Factor :
If only tensile-strength data are available, polynomial
fitting to the data could provide the temperature factor
at various temperature values.
If the rotating-beam endurance limit is known at room
temperature, we have

Marin Modification Factors on Endurance

Limit
Reliability Factor :
Most endurance strength data are reported as mean values.
To account for the scatter of measurement data, the reliability
modification factor is written as

Miscellaneous effect Factor :

The miscellaneous factor intends to account for the reduction in
endurance limit due to all other effects, such as residual stresses,
different material treatments, directional characteristics of
operations, and corrosion.

Fracture Mechanics : Introduction

The linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) assume

that cracks can grow during service.
The use of elastic stress-concentration factors provides an
indication of the average load required on a part for the
onset of plastic deformation, or yielding.
For the infinite plate loaded by an applied uniaxial stress ,
the maximum stress occurs at (a, 0) and is given by

such that the crack growth occurs when the energy release
rate from applied loading is greater than the rate of energy
for crack growth.

Fracture Mechanics : Stress Intensity Factor

Three distinct modes of crack propagation exist

Mode I : the opening crack propagation mode
( the most common and important mode)
Mode II : the sliding mode
Mode III : the tearing mode

Consider a mode I crack of length 2a in the infinite plate, the stress

field on a dx dy element in the vicinity of the crack tip is given by

where KI is the stress intensity factor with a mode I crack defined

as
For various load and geometric configurations,
where is the stress intensity modification factor

Fracture Mechanics : Fracture Toughness

When the magnitude of the mode I

stress intensity factor reaches a
critical value, the critical stress
intensity factor KI c crack
propagation initiates.
The critical stress intensity factor KI c
is also called the fracture toughness
of the material.

Fracture toughness KI c for engineering metals lies in the

range 20 KI c 200 MPa m; for engineering polymers
and ceramics, 1 KI c 5 MPa m. For a 4340 steel, where
the yield strength due to heat treatment ranges from 800 to
1600 MPa, KI c decreases from 190 to 40 MPa m.

The strength-to-stress ratio KI c /KI can be used as a factor of

safety as