POROSITY

Many slides contain more detailed notes that may be shown using the Notes Page View

Acknowledgments
Dr. Walt Ayers, PETE 311, Fall 2001
NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999
Note that many of the NExT slides appears to have been
obtained from other primary sources that are not cited

RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of a rock that
is occupied by voids (pores).
Discussion Topics
Origins and descriptions
Factors that effect porosity
Methods of determination

ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix

Pore space
Note different use of matrix
by geologists and engineers

POROSITY DEFINITION
Porosity: The fraction of a rock that is
occupied by pores
Porosity is an intensive property describing the
fluid storage capacity of rock

Vp

Vb Vma
Porosity

Vb
Vb

ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix

Water

Oil and/or gas

OBJECTIVES
To provide an understanding of
The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
The difference between total and effective porosity
Laboratory methods of porosity determination
Determination of porosity from well logs

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Rock-forming Source of
process
material

IGNEOU
S

SEDIMENTARY

METAMORPHIC

Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle

Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface

Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust

Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)

Sedimentation, burial
and lithification

Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastics
Carbonates
Evaporites

CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS

Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals
Are Classified on the Basis of:
- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition

Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 )

SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES,

Relative Abundances
Sandstone
and conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%

Siltstone
and shale
(clastic)
~75%

Limestone and
dolomite
~14%

Comparison of Compositions of Clastic

and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks
Sand
Grains

Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Allochemical Pelloids
Oolites
Grains
Intractlasts

Quartz
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Average
Sandstone

Average
Mudrock
(Shale)

Average
Sparry
Limestone
Average
Micritic
Limestone

Clay
Matrix

Chemical
Cement

Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite

Quartz
Calcite
Hematite

Microcrystalline
Matrix

Chemical
Cement

Calcite

Calcite

Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments

Name
Boulder
Cobble
Pebble
Granule
Very Coarse Sand
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Very Fine Sand
Coarse Silt
Medium Silt
Fine Silt
Very Fine Silt
Clay

Millimeters

Micrometers

4,096

256
64
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.062
0.031
0.016
0.008
0.004

500
250
125
62
31
16
8
4
(modified from Blatt, 1982)

Average Detrital Mineral Composition

of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition

Shale

Sandstone

Clay Minerals

60 (%)

Quartz

30

65

10-15

<5

15

<1

<3

<1

Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals

5 (%)

(modified from Blatt, 1982)

SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5

Quartzarenite

Subarkose

Sublitharenite

25

25

Lithic
Subarkose
50

50

Feldspar

10

Lithic
Arkose

25

(modified from McBride, 1963)

Felspathic
Litharenite

50

ite
ren

Ar
ko

se

ha
Lit

25

25

25

10

Unstable
Rock
Fragments

FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF

SANDSTONE
Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains

Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains

Pores
Voids Among the Above Components

FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Geologists Classification

1.
2.
3.
4.

Framework
Matrix
Cement
Pores

Note different use of matrix

by geologists and engineers

Engineering
matrix

PORE
FRAMEWORK

CEMENT

(QUARTZ)

MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm

ORIGINS OF POROSITY IN
CLASTICS AND CARBONATES
(Genetic Classification)

Primary (original)
Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)

PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY

Developed at deposition
Typified by
Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates
Intercrystalline and fenestral pores of carbonates

Usually more uniform than induced porosity

SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY

Developed by geologic processes after

deposition (diagenetic processes)

Examples

Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates

Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,
and carbonates

SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES

Intergranular (Primary) Interstitial Void Space Between
Framework Grains
Micropores

Small Pores Mainly Between Detrital

Framework Grains or Cement

Dissolution

Partial or Complete Dissolution of

or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains

Fractures

Breakage Due to Earth Stresses

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY

PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (diagenetic)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

SPHERICITY

Porosity

ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY

OF CLASTIC GRAINS

High

Low
Very
Angular
Angular

SubSubWellRounded
Rounded
Angular Rounded

ROUNDNESS

Porosity

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY

PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE

Line of Traverse
(using microscope)

4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity

Sutured Contact

A measure of the extent to

which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
neighbors

Long Contact

Packing Density

Tangential Contact

Cement

Matrix
(clays, etc.)

A measure of the extent to

which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Concavo-Convex
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)

CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES

Porosity = 48%

Porosity Calculations - Uniform

Spheres
Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3
Matrix volume =

4 r3
3

Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

Pore Volume
Porosity
Bulk Volume
Bulk Volume Matrix Volume

Bulk Volume
8 r3 4 / 3 r3

47
.
6
%
2 3
8 r3

RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES

Porosity = 27 %

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY

PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%

Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well
Sorted

Well
Sorted

Moderately
Sorted

SORTING

Poorly
Sorted

Very Poorly
Sorted

TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED

BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale

Slow Current
Fast Current

Change of Composition

Change of Size
River

Eolian

Beach

Fluvial

Change of Shape

Change of Orientation

Change of Packing

PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular
Layers

Mottles
(Distinct)

Irregular
Layers

Mottles
(Indistinct)

Homogeneous
Deposits

Bioturbated Sandstone
(Whole Core)

STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A. October 1985

STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY

PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

DIAGENESIS

Carbonate
Cemented

Diagenesis is the PostDepositional Chemical and

Mechanical Changes that
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Oil
Stained

Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela

Compaction
Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement

The Effects of Diagenesis May

Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Photo by W. Ayers

DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Sandstone Comp.

Framework

Matrix

Cement

Pores

1.
2.

Primary and secondary matrix porosity system

Fracture porosity system

FRACTURE

DISSOLUTION
PORE

PORE
FRAMEWORK

CEMENT

(QUARTZ)

MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

Note different use of matrix

by geologists and engineers

0.25 mm

SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains

KF

PRF

KF

P
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in Diameter/Length

KF = Potassium
Feldspar
PRF = Plutonic Rock
Fragment
Q = Quartz
P = Pore
Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
Pores are Impregnated With
Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Photo by R. Kugler

POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Pore
Quartz
Grain

Porosity in Sandstone
Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Variation in Grain Size
Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Pore Throats in
Sandstone May
Be Lined With
A Variety of
Cement Minerals
That Affect
Petrophysical
Properties
Scanning Electron Micrograph
Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Pore
Throat

Pores Provide the

Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons
Pore Throats Restrict
Flow through pores

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,

Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Offshore Alabama, USA

~ 10 m

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,

Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Electron Photomicrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Illite

Negligible
Porosity
Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Pore

Microporosity

Kaolinite

Quartz
Detrital
Grain

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA

Intergranular Pores
Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids
Micropores Contain
Irreducible Water

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,

Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction
High Irreducible Water
Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Pore
Quartz Detrital
Grain
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

Dissolution of
Framework Grains
(Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Interconnected
Pore System
This is Secondary
Porosity
Photo by R.L. Kugler

DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Scanning Electron Micrograph
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Effective Pore System

Photo by R.L. Kugler

Comparison of Compositions of Clastic

and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks
Sand
Grains

Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Allochemical Pelloids
Oolites
Grains
Intractlasts

Quartz
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Average
Sandstone

Average
Mudrock
(Shale)

Average
Sparry
Limestone
Average
Micritic
Limestone

Clay
Matrix

Chemical
Cement

Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite

Quartz
Calcite
Hematite

Microcrystalline
Matrix

Chemical
Cement

Calcite

Calcite

Iles Gambier
Tuamotu Archipelago

Maldive Islands

FOLK CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Over 2/3 Lime Mud Matrix
1-10%

0-1%
Micrite &
Dismicrite

10-50%

Over
50%

Subequal Over 2/3 Spar Cement

Spar & Sorting
Sorting Rounded,
Lime Mud Poor
Abraded
Good

Poorly
FossiliPacked Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
Sparse
ferous
Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite Biomicrite

Claystone

Sandy
SubClayey or
Claystone Immature Sandstone mature SS

Depositional Texture Recognizable

SuperMature
mature SS
SS
Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable

DUNHAM CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Depositional Texture Recognizable
Components Not Bound Together During Deposition
Contains Mud
Lacks Mud,
(clay and silt size particles
GrainGrain
Mud Supported
Supported
Supported
<10 %
>10 %

Depositional
Texture
Original Components
Not Recognizable
Bound Together
During Deposition

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Grains

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Packstone

Grainstone

Boundstone

Crystalline
Carbonate

CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES

Interparticle

Pores Between Particles or Grains

Intraparticle

Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal

Pores Between Crystals

Moldic

Pores Formed by Dissolution of an

Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock

Fenestral

Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported

Interstices

Fracture

Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock

Vug

Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate

Dissolution of Cements and Grains

Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle

Intraparticle

Intercrystal

Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral

Shelter

Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture

Channel

Vug

Breccia

Boring

Burrow

Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective

(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)

CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
Dolomite
Moldic
Pore

Due to dissolution
and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Isolated pores
Low effective porosity

Calcite
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light
Smackover Formation, Alabama

Low permeability
Blue areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)

CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores

Combination pore system

Moldic pores formed through
dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)
Connected pores

Moldic
Pore

High effective porosity

High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)

PORE SPACE
CLASSIFICATION
(In Terms of Fluid Properties)

PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
Total Pore Volume
Bulk Volume

Total porosity, t =

Effective porosity, e =

Interconnected Pore Space

Bulk Volume

Effective porosity of great importance;

contains the mobile fluid

COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND

EFFECTIVE POROSITIES
Very clean sandstones : e t
Poorly to moderately well -cemented
intergranular materials: t e
Highly cemented materials and most
carbonates: e < t

MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY

Core samples (Laboratory)

Openhole wireline logs

SANDSTONE POROSITY MEASURED

BY VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
Total Porosity - Neutron Log
Total Porosity - Density Log
Absolute or Total Porosity
Rock
Matrix

Oven-Dried Core Analysis Porosity

Humidity-Dried
VShale
Core Analysis Porosity
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Pores
Capillary
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Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pevear, 1988)

Large, Interconnected
Pores

Hydrocarbon
Pore Volume

Isolated
Pores

INFORMATION FROM CORES*

Standard Analysis
Porosity

Special Core Analysis

Vertical permeability to air
Relative permeability

Horizontal permeability to
air
Capillary pressure
Grain density

Cementation exponent (m)

and saturation exponent (n)

*Allows calibration of wireline log results

CORING ASSEMBLY
AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Core retaining
ring
Core bit

Fluid
vent

COMING OUT OF HOLE

WITH CORE BARREL

WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa C Sandstone,
Venezuela

Photo by W. Ayers

SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN

Core bullets

Formation rock
Core sample

SIDEWALL CORING TOOL

Coring bit

Samples

WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
WHOLE CORE
Provides larger samples
Better and more consistent representation of
formation
Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more
complex lithologies

WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
Smaller samples
Less representative of heterogeneous formations
Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to highporosity formation
In low-porosity formations, from core plugs tends
to be much greater than from whole cores
Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs

CORE PLUG

Sparks and Ayers, unpublished

NEXT:
LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY

Student Questions / Answers

intraparticle porosity in carbonates (JC1):
vugs and fractures
why are clays important (JC1):
one major reason is that clays conduct electricity, this can
effect water saturation calculations if not accounted for
fines (ABW):
solid particles so small that they can flow with fluids through
pores - but they can also plug pore throats
tortuousity (ABW):
the indirect curvy flow path through the pore system to get
from point A to point B
holocene:
referring to the Holocene Epoch (geology) or in general
meaning about the last 10,000 years.