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Pressure measurement

Pressure measurement is a very common


requirement for most industrial process
control system and many different types
of pressure-sensing and pressure
measurement systems are available.
The absolute pressure of a fluid defines
the difference between the pressure of
the fluid and the absolute zero of the
pressure.
Lecturer Touseef Yaqoob El

Measurement of mid-range
pressures(1.013-7000 bar)

U-tube Manometer
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area
- and the most accurate way to measure
low air pressure is to balance a column of
liquid of known weight against it and
measure the height of the liquid column so
balanced. The units of measure commonly
used are inches of mercury (in. Hg), using
mercury as the fluid and inches of water
(in. w.c.), using water or oil as the fluid.
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Explanation

Fig. 2-1. In its simplest form the manometer


is a U-tube about half filled with liquid. With
both ends of the tube open, the liquid is at
the same height in each leg.
Fig. 2-2. When positive pressure is applied to
one leg, the liquid is forced down in that leg
and up in the other. The difference in height,
"h," which is the sum of the readings above
and below zero, indicates the pressure.
Fig. 2-3. When a vacuum is applied to one
leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the
other. The difference in height, "h," which is
the sum of the readings above and below
zero, indicates the amount of vacuum.
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VARIATIONS IN MANOMETER
DESIGN

To overcome the U-tube requirement of


readings at two different places, the welltype manometer was developed. The
reservoir (well) may be made large enough
so that the change of level in the reservoir is
negligible, or the scale may be compensated
for the change in reservoir liquid level. For
purposes of a more practical instrument the
well-type manometer uses a precision bored
well that requires approximately a 10% scale
correction for well drop effect, thus avoiding
an overly large and bulky reservoir.
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Continued
To improve and expand readability, certain
U-type and well-type manometers are
available with a. Red oil indicating fluid,
and scales compensated to read pressure
directly in inches of water. To further
increase readability and sensitivity the
well-type manometer indicating tube is
inclined, to cause a greater linear
movement along the tube for a given
pressure difference. For an inclined
manometer to be a primary device, the
inclined tube must be straight and uniform.
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Well-type manometer

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Explanation
At left, equal pressure is imposed on the
fluid in the well and in the indicating tube.
Reading is zero. At the right, a positive
pressure has been imposed on the liquid in
the well causing the level to go down very
slightly. Liquid level in indicating tube has
risen substantially. Reading is taken
directly from scale at liquid level in
indicating tube. The scale has been
compensated for the drop in level in the
well.
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Inclined manometer

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Explanation
At left, equal pressure is imposed on the
liquid in the well and the indicating tube.
Reading is zero. At the right a positive
pressure has been imposed on the liquid
in the indicating tube pushing it down to
a point on the scale equal to the
pressure. Liquid level in the well rises
proportionately. Inclining the indicating
tube has opened up the scale to permit
more precise reading of the pressure.
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FACTORS AFFECTING MANOMETER


PERFORMANCE AND USAGE

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDICATING FLUID


The fluid must also have good "wetting"
characteristics and be capable of forming a
consistent, well shaped meniscus in the
indicating tube to facilitate accurate,
repeatable readings.
The fluid used also affects the operating
range of the manometer. Mercury being
13.6 times the weight of water will move
1/13.6th the distance water will move in
response to a given pressure.
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use of fluids that give a uniform, well defined


meniscus facilitate accurate reading.
Scales must be clear, sharp, accurate and
easy to read.
For accuracy, it is essential that the readings
be made with the line of sight perpendicular
to the fluid column to eliminate parallax
error.
Parallax free reading is made by aligning
meniscus with its reflection in the polished
scale.
Smoothly machined bores further enhance
the visibility of the meniscus.

READABILITY

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LEVELING

Accurate readings with inclined and


inclined-vertical manometers require that
the inclined portion of the scale be at the
exact angle for which it is designed.
solid plastic inclined and inclined-vertical
manometers are equipped with the
integral, sensitive spirit levels to facilitate
this requirement; most also have screw
type leveling adjustment.
Lecturer Touseef Yaqoob El

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FACTORS IN DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE


THAT AFFECT INCLINED MANOMETER
ACCURACY
1. "Well

Drop" (ratio of the area of the


reservoir to the area of the indicating
tube).
As the fluid rises or falls in the indicating
tube the level in the reservoir will fall or
rise correspondingly and the scale must be
compensated accordingly.
Inaccuracies in the diameter of the
reservoir or the indicating tube will create
errors in this compensation.
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Continued

In glass tube instruments this error


can only be minimized by a large ratio
of reservoir to indicating tube area, by
the use of precision bore tubing.
the use of machining techniques
accurate to .0002" for wells and
indicating bores reduces this error to
insignificance.
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2. Indicating Bore Straightness

Magnitude of error from this cause is,


therefore, a function of the quality of
this particular piece of precision bore
tubing and the manner of tube
mounting.
Variations in accuracy from gage to
gage and in a given gage over a period
of time can be anticipated as the tube is
bumped or bent in use.
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The Pressure Sensor

Because of the great variety of conditions,


ranges, and materials for which pressure
must be measured, there are many different
types of pressure sensor designs.
Often pressure can be converted to some
intermediate form, such as displacement.
The sensor then converts this displacement
into an electrical output such as voltage or
current.
The three most universal types of pressure
transducers of this form are the strain gage,
variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.
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Strain gage

Of all the pressure sensors, Wheatstone


bridge (strain based) sensors are the
most common, offering solutions that
meet varying accuracy, size, and cost
constraints.
Bridge sensors are used for high and
low pressure applications, and can
measure absolute or differential
pressure.
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Strain gage

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Continued

When a change in pressure causes


the diaphragm to deflect, a
corresponding change in resistance
is induced on the strain gauge,
which can be measured by a Data
Acquisition (DAQ) System.

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variable capacitance type


pressure sensor

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Continued

The capacitance between two metals plates


changes if the distance between these two
plates changes.
A variable capacitance pressure transducer,
measures the change in capacitance between
a metal diaphragm and a fixed metal plate.
These pressure transducers are generally
very stable and linear, but are sensitive to
high temperatures and are more complicated
to setup than most pressure sensors

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Piezoelectric pressure
transducer

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Continued

Piezoelectric pressure transducer, take


advantage of the electrical properties of
naturally occurring crystals such as
quartz. These crystals generate an
electrical charge when they are strained.
Piezoelectric pressure sensors do not
require an external excitation source and
are very rugged.
The sensors however, do require charge
amplification circuitry and very
susceptible to shock and vibration.
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Pressure Sensors
(pressure < one atmosphere)

Thermocouple Gauges
Pirani Gauges
Ionization Gauges

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Thermocouple
Gauges

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Continued

To determine a chamber's pressure range


between 10 and 10-3 Torr a gauge measures
the voltage of a thermocouple spot-welded to
a filament exposed to system gas.
A constant current supply feeds the filament,
and the filament reaches a temperature
dependant on thermal losses to the gas.
At higher pressure, more molecules hit the
filament and remove more heat energy,
changing the thermocouple voltage,
Changing the thermocouple voltage.
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Pirani Gauges

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Continued

In a Pirani gauge two filaments (platinum


alloy in the best gauges), act as resistances
in two arms of a Wheatstone bridge.
The reference filament is immersed in a
fixed-gas pressure, while the measurement
filament is exposed to the system gas.
A current through the bridge heats both
filaments. Gas molecules hit the heated
filaments and conduct away some of the
heat.
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Continued

If the gas pressure (or composition) around


the measurement filament is not identical
to that around the reference filament, the
bridge is unbalanced and the degree of
unbalance is a measure of the pressure.
In reality, modern Pirani gauges
electronically adjust the unbalance and use
the current needed to bring about balance
as a measure of the pressure. This
improves the linearity of measurement.

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Continued

Any particular Pirani gauge has roughly


the same dynamic range as a
thermocouple gauge but the
measurement principle allows these
gauges to cover a greater total range
(from 20 Torr to 10-5 Torr) than is
available from the thermocouple principle.
Pirani gauges and their circuitry are
typically ten times faster than
thermocouple gauges
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Ionization Gauges

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Continued

Ion gauges allow measurement of


pressure in vacuum chambers.
There are two types of tubulated hot
filament ion gauge
Bayard-Alpert (B-A)
Schulz-Phelps (S-P)
They differ only in the physical size and
spacing of their electrodes.
Both have heated filaments biased to
give thermionic electrons of 70e -energetic enough to ionize any residual
gas molecules during collisions.
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Continued

The positive ions formed drift to an


ion collector held at about 150V.
The current measures gas number
density, a direct measure of pressure.
With a suitable controller, the
commonly available B-A ion gauges
will measure pressures between 1 x
10-4 to 1 x 10-9 Torr.
The electrode spacing of an S-P
gauge can increase the upper
pressure measurement limit to 1 Torr
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Pressure Sensors (pressure > one atmosphere)

In general, the design of pressure sensors


employed for measurement of pressure
higher than one atmosphere differs from
those employed for pressure less than one
atmosphere.
Most pressure sensors used this pressure
range require the transduction of pressure
information into a physical displacement.
Measurement of pressure requires
techniques for producing the displacement
and means for converting such
displacement into a proportional electrical
signal
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Diaphragms, Bellows, and Bourdon


Tubes

One common element used to convert


pressure information into a physical
displacement is the diaphragm. A
diaphragm is like a spring, and therefore
extends or contracts until a Hooke's law
force is developed that balances the
pressure difference force.
A bellows is another device much like the
diaphragm that converts a pressure
differential into a physical displacement,
except that here the displacement is
much more a straight-line expansion.
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Continued

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Continued

Figure also shows how an LVDT can be


connected to the bellows so that the
pressure measurement is converted
directly from displacement to voltage.
In addition, the displacement and
pressure are nearly linearly related,
and because the LVDT voltage is
linear with displacement, the voltage
and pressure are also linearly related.
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Continued

A common pressure-to-displacement
conversion is accomplished by a
specially constructed tube (See Figure).
If a section of tubing is partially
flattened and coiled as shown, then the
application of pressure inside the tube
causes the tube to uncoil. This then
provides a displacement that is
proportional to pressure
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Continued

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Techniques used

Many techniques are used to convert the


displacements generated in the previous
examples into electronic signals.
The simplest technique is to use a
mechanical linkage connected to a
potentiometer. In this fashion, pressure is
related to a resistance change.
Other methods of conversion employ
strain gauges directly on a diaphragm.
LVDTs and other inductive devices are
used to convert bellows or Bourdon tube
motions into proportional electrical
signals
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Solid-State Pressure Sensors

Integrated circuit manufacturers have


developed composite pressure sensors
that are particularly easy to use.
These devices commonly employ a
semiconductor diaphragm onto which a
semiconductor strain gauge and
temperature-compensation sensor have
been grown.
Appropriate signal conditioning is included
in integrated circuit form, providing a dc
voltage or current linearly proportional to
pressure over a specified range.
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Continued

These devices are available for absolute,


gauge, and differential-pressure
measurement.
They are simple to use, often needing only
three connections: a dc supply, ground,
and signal output.
The connection to the measurement
environment is made through a fitting or
welded-pipe connection.
The above sensors often require very
specific signal conditioning, and in many
cases the sensors must be purchased with
a sensor-specific controller.
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Example

A differential pressure (DP) cell measures pressure difference


with a diaphragm. A feedback system minimizes actual
diaphragm motion
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Fiber optic Pressure


Sensors

Fiber optic pressure sensors, known as


microbend sensors.
The refractive index of fiber optic cable and
hence intensity of light transmitted varies
according to the mechanical deformation of
the fibers caused by pressure.
The sensitivity of pressure sensors can be
optimized by applying a pressure via roller
chain such that bending is applied
periodically.
Microbend sensors are used to measure the
small pressure changes
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Pressure Switches

Pressure switches close or open electrical


contacts when the pressure to be monitored
reaches a predetermined level.
The representative construction of the
switch incorporates a pressure-sensitive
elastic element, a counterbalancing spring
working against the element, and a lever
linkage carrying the contacts. When the
pressure reaches the setup point, the levers,
carrying the contacts, trigger.
Pressure switch. P = pressure, 1 = pressuresensitive element, 2 = counterbalancing
spring, 3 = lever linkage, 4 = contacts
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Continued

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High Pressure measurement (> 7000


bar)

Measurement of pressure above


7000 bar is normally carried out
electrically by monitoring the
change of resistance of wires of
special materials.
Materials having resistancepressure characteristics which are
suitably linear and sensitive include
gold-chromium alloys and manganin.
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Continued

A coil of such wire is enclosed in a


sealed, kerosene-filled, flexible
bellows.
The unknown pressure is applied to
one end of the bellows, which
transmit the pressure to the coil,
the magnitude of the pressure is
then determined by measuring the
coil resistance.
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Intelligent pressure transducers

Adding microprocessor power to pressure


transducers brings substantial
improvements in their characteristics.
Some features of intelligent pressure
transducers include, improved
measurement sensitivity, extended
measurement range, compensation for
hysteresis and other non-linearities, and
correction of ambient pressure and
temperature changes.
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