BUILDING FRAMES

1.1

Types and Structural Action

What are building frames?

Are structures used to resist vertical forces e.g. gravity
loading and lateral forces e.g. wind and earthquakes.
They consists of vertical members e.g. columns and
horizontal members e.g. beams.
Types of frames
Rigid frames
Braced frames
2

 Rigid structural frames

are built at the site which may or
may not be poured monolithically
provide more stability
resist rotations more effectively

(a) Rigid structural frames Cast in-situ, i.e. monolithically

The frame consists of flanged
beams and columns.
During analysis, beams are
considered as rectangular in
section, while in design for sagging
moments, the flanges section are
utilized.

(b) Rigid structural frames Precast construction

The beams used as a
rectangular in section

 Braced structural frames

resist lateral forces by bracing
action of diagonal members
are used to resist sideway forces
Advantages
stabilize the frame against
earthquakes and strong winds
lateral forces are resisted by axial
actions of bracing and columns
more efficient than a rigid frame
6

Braced structural frames ways of bracing

Diagonal struts

University of California, USA

Hearst tower in New York, USA

7

Braced structural frames ways of bracing

Stairs and lift shafts

Braced structural frames ways of bracing

Infill masonry walls

Braced structural frames ways of bracing

Shear walls

10

A structure may be idealised into a series of plane frames in each

direction for analysis and design:
(i) Where two-way slabs are used;
(a) the frame in each direction carry part of the load governed by
the sides of the slab panels,
(b) columns are subject to biaxial bending action,
(c) torsion may occur in beams.
Effects due to (i)(b) and (c) are usually small in rectangular buildings. It
is thus only necessary to design for maximum moments about the
critical axis.
(ii) Where one-way floor slabs are used, transverse rigid frames carry
the entire load, viz. longitudinal beams only transmit the loads to
transverse beams.

11

P la n

L o n g itu d in a l fr a m e

T r a n sv e r se fra m e

Figure 1.1: Idealised building

frames

Foundations: may be pad, strip, raft or raft and piles,

piles with pile-heads, etc.

12

1.2

Building Actions

Actions on buildings are due to dead, imposed, wind, dynamic,

seismic and accidental. However, the main types of load action
on the building frames are as follows:
1.2.1 Action types
Dead load
They includes weight of roofs, floors, beams, walls, columns,
floor finishes, partitions, ceilings, services, etc. They normally
estimated based on the assumed section sizes.
Live load
They includes distributed loads, concentrated loads, impact,
inertia and snow. They depends on the type and use of the
structure.
BS 6399 or CP 3 Chapter V: Part 1 may be used to estimate
the live loads.

Wind load
BS 6399 or CP 3 Chapter V: Part 2 is used to estimate the wind
13
load depending on various factors

1.2.2 The common load combinations

Load combination
Load type
Earth and wind
Dead load
Imposed load
water
Advers Beneficia
Adverse
Benefici
Pressure
e
l
al
1: Dead +
1.4
1.0
1.6
0
1.4
imposed
(and earth
and water
pressure)
2: Dead
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.4
+ wind
(earth
and
water
pressure
)
3: Dead
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
+
imposed
+ wind
14
(earth

1.3

Robustness and the Design of Ties

Robustness is the ability of a structure to withstand

adverse conditions, including disproportionate collapse.
The following considerations are important to prevent
disproportionate collapse of structures:
Situations should be avoided where damage to a small
area or failure of a single element could lead to
collapse of major parts of the structure.
Effective ties should be provided as a precaution for
prevention of progressive collapse.
The layout must be such as to give a stable and robust
structure.

15

.There

are four main types of ties

1.Peripheral ties,
2.Internal ties,
3.Horizontal ties to columns and walls, and
4.Vertical ties.
The design of ties entails consideration of the following:
Ties are designed to act at characteristic strength of the
steel reinforcement, fy,
Reinforcement provided for other purposes may form
the whole or part of the ties, and
Ties must be properly anchored, i.e. extended 12 or the
anchorage length beyond the bar end.
16

Figure 1.2: Ties for robustness

17

Figure 1.3: Location of the various ties in a structure

18

1.3.1 : Internal ties

Internal ties need to be considered and properly provided
for buildings in the following situations:
At the roof and all floors,
Throughout their length and anchored to peripheral
ties,
Spread evenly in slabs or grouped in beams or walls
at a spacing 1.5lr,
where lr is the greater of the distance (in meters)
between centers of columns, frames or walls
supporting adjacent floor spans.

19

Internal ties should be capable of resisting the tensile force,

Fit such that;
Fit [(gk + qk)/7.5] x (lr/5) x Ft
1.0 Ft
Where, Ft [20 + 4no]
60 kN;
no is the number of storeys, and
gk, qk are characteristic floor loads

Figure 1.4: Laps in internal tie reinforcement

20

1.3.2: Peripheral ties

Continuous peripheral ties have to be provided at each floor
and at the roof, such that:
Fpt = Ft
(20 + 4no)
60 kN.
They should be located within 1.2 m of the edge of the
building or within perimeter wall.

Figure 1.5: Alternative means of providing anchorage of peripheral ties

21

1.3.3: Horizontal Ties to Columns and Walls

Each external column and every meter of wall should be
tied to the structure or peripheral tie with a force, F ht
such that:
Fht 2Ft
(ls/2.5) Ft
0.03Nu;
where, Nu is the ultimate vertical load carried by
column or wall,
ls is the floor to ceiling height in metres.
Fht may be partly or wholly provided by peripheral or
internal ties.

22

1.3.4: Corner Column Ties

Corner columns should be anchored in two directions at
right angles with a force, Fct, such that:
Fct 2Ft
(ls/2.5)Ft
0.03Nu

Figure 1.6: Alternative means of providing anchorage between

internal and column ties

23

1.3.5: Vertical ties

Vertical ties are required in buildings of five or more
storeys. Each column and load bearing wall should be
tied continuously from the foundation to the roof with a
force, Fvt carried by column from one floor, such that:
Fvt = (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk);
where Gk and Qk are characteristic floor loads borne
by the column or wall.

24

Example 1.1
For structure shown in Figure 1.1 below, design suitable
ties using reinforcement of grade 460. Service loading
for the structure is qk = 35 kN/m and gk = 50 kN/m. Take
the floor to ceiling height as 2.5 m.

Figure 1.1: Frame details for typing force calculations.

25

SOLUTION
(i)

Peripheral ties

Number of storey, no = 4, thus

Fpt = Ft (20 + 4no) = (20 + 4 x 4 = 36)
60 kN
Therefore Ft = 36 kN
Area of tie,
Supply 2Y8 (101 mm2)

26

(ii)
Internal ties
Consider point J
Fit [(gk + qk)/7.5](lr/5)Ft= [(50 + 35)/7.5]x(10/5)x36 = 816kN
1.0 Ft = 36 kN
Here the typing force is the value of Ft i.e. 36 kN, and gives
2Y8 bars
(iii)
Horizontal ties
Consider coulomn KJ, the design vertical load, Nu is given
by
4 x (1.4gk + 1.6qk) x (L1/2 + L2/2)
= 4 x (1.4 x 50 + 1.6 x 35) x (8/2 +10/2) = 4536 kN
Fht 2Ft = 2 x36 = 72 kN

27

 (ls/2.5)Ft = (2.5/2.5) x 36 = 36 kN
0.03 x 4536 = 136 kN
Thus the design force is Fht = 136 kN, then
Area of tie,
Supply 3Y12 (339 mm2)

28

1.4
Frame Analysis
for
vertical load action
29

The methods of frame analysis that are used may be

classified as;
i)Manual methods such as moment distribution or using
solution for standard frames,
ii)
Simplified manual methods of analysing sub-frames
in accordance with clause 3.2.1 of BS 8110,
iii)
Computer plane frame programs based on the matrix
stiffness method of analysis.
All methods are based on the elastic theory, such that:
In frames of up to four storeys, BS 8110 permits up to 30%
moment redistribution of peak elastic moments.
In un-braced frames of more than four storeys, viz. frames
providing lateral stability, moment redistribution is limited to
10%.
30

In rigid frame analysis:

Member sizes must be chosen from experience (i.e.
based on architectural drawings) or established by
preliminary design,
Ratios of stiffnesses of the final member sections should
then be checked against initial estimates, and re-design
carried out if necessary.
Evaluation of relative stiffnesses of members may be based
on the following:
Gross concrete section ignoring steel,
Gross concrete section including the reinforcement on the
basis of modular ratio, viz. the transformed section;
Transformed section consisting of compression concrete
and the reinforcement on the basis of the modular ratio.
31

NOTE: It is usual to adopt the gross section ignoring the

steel. If otherwise, it is usual to adopt a modular ratio figure
of 15.
In beam-slab constructions, beam stiffness may be based
on uniform rectangular section consisting of the beam depth
by the beam rib/web width, and evaluated as EI/L.
where E = Youngs Modulus,
I = second moment of area of the crosssection about the centroidal axis
L = actual length of the member between the
joint centres
Where E is constant, the relative stiffness (I/L) may be used
in place of the actual stiffness EI/L
32

The following should also be born in mind by the designer:

The flange width is considered in beam design for sagging
moments,
Flexural rigidity (EI) should be based on the actual
properties of materials and member section, and
Both E and I (to a less significant extent) are dependent
on the state of the stress E can, however, be assumed to
be constant (see Table 7.2 of BS 8110 Part 2).

33

BS 8110 allows the moments, axial loads and shear forces

in individual columns and beams to be derived from an
elastic analysis of a series of sub-frames, mainly to
facilitate hand computations.
For a braced frame, the sub-framing falls into three
categories, i.e.
(a) The one floor level sub-frame,
(b) Two free-joints sub-frame,
(c) Beam and column structure.

Figure 1.7
Braced
system
34

(a) The One Floor Level Sub-Frame (Sub-frame Type I)

Each sub-frame is taken to consist of the beams at one
level together with the columns above and below. The
ends of the columns may be assumed to be fixed
unless the assumption of pinned end is clearly more
reasonable. The full stiffness is used for all members.

Figure 1.8: Sub-Frame BS 8110 Cl. 3.2.1.2.1

35

For this case, two types of loading are recommended.

(i) All spans loaded with maximum load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk)
1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

(ii) Alternating spans loaded with 1.4Gk +1.6Qk while all others are
loaded with minimum design load of 1.0Gk only
1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
1 .0 G k

36

(b) Two Free-Joints Sub-Frame (Sub-frame Type II)

0 .5 I /L

(a )

0 .5 I /L

0 .5 I /L

The moments and shear

forces in each individual
beam may be found by
considering a sub-frame
consisting of only that
beam, the columns
attached to the ends of
that beam and the beams
on each side. If the
structure and loading are
symmetrical about a
centre beam, the end
beam stiffness is halved
and there is no carry-over
between the free joints.

(b )

Figure 1.9: Sub-frame BS 8110 Cl. 3.2.1.2.3

37

Thus, the sub-frame in Fig. 1.9 (a) would be used to analyse

Beam A-B, while sub-frame in Fig. 1.9 (b) would be used to
analyse Beam B-C

Figure 2.0: Load combinations for sub-frame in Figure 1.9 (a)

38

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

(a )

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k

1 .0 G k
A

1 .0 G k
D

(b )

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k

1 .0 G k
B

(c )

Figure 2.1: Load combinations for sub-frame in Figure 1.9 (b)

39

(c) Continuous Beam and Column Structure

Another alternative method to the sub-frame arrangements is
that the shears and moments in the beams at one level may
be obtained by considering the beam to be continuous over
several supports providing no restraint to rotation.
A

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

1 .0 G k
A

B
1 .0 G k

1 .0 G k
B

Figure 2.2: Load combinations for a continuous beam as per

BS 8110 Cl. 3.2.1.2.4

40

The continuous beam ignores the column i.e. the column

forces have thus to be analysed using one-joint sub-frame
simplification as shown Figure 2.3 below.
Column moments may be calculated by using simple
moment distribution procedures on the assumption that the
column and beam ends remote from the junction under
consideration are fixed and that the beams possess half of
their actual stiffness this is meant to take care of the oversimplification. The load combination, as shown in Figure
2.4, adopted should give the greatest imbalance at the
joint.

41

0 .5 I /L

0 .5 I /L

Figure 2.3: Halved stiffness of beams

NOTE: The bending moment in the column found from

analysis of the sub-frame should be combined with the
maximum axial load for design.

42

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
A

0 .5 I /L

1 .0 G k
B

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k

1 .0 G k

1 .4 G k + 1 .6 Q k
B

Figure 2.4: Sub-frame load combinations

43

Example 1.2
The frame shown in Figure 1.2 below is under vertical
load action, with gk = 36 kN/m and qk = 45 kN/m on the
level E-H.

8 .0 m

1 0 .0 m

3 .0 m

3 .0 m

8 .0 m

Figure 1.2: Three bay storey frame

44

The second moment of area, Ii, are:

10 m beam = 0.8 x 1010 mm4
8 m beam = 0.8 x 1010 mm4
Columns = 0.8 x 1010 mm4
The self-weight of the column may be ignored
TASK: Analyse the first floor level (E-H) sub-frame
Solution:
Minimum loading = 1.0gk = 36.0 kN/m
Maximum loading = 1.4gk + 1.6qk = 122.4 kN/m

45

Load case I

1 2 2 .4 k N /m

3 6 k N /m

3 .0 m

L
3 6 k N /m

8 .0 m

1 0 .0 m

8 .0 m

3 .0 m

Figure 1:2.1: Load Case I

46

EIi
r

EIc

Li

Lc

Distribution Factors
Fixed end
EIb
moments
Lb

If E is constant, then

Mi

w .l
12

MEF = -MFE = MGH =

-MHG = (36 x 8)/12
Li
r
I
I
= 192 kNm
c L b L
c
b

MFG = -MGF =
122.4x10/12
Node E
= 1020 kNm
rEA = (0.8/3)/[2(0.8/3) + 0.8/8] = 0.2667/0.6333 =
0.42
rEJ = rEA = 0.42
rcolumns = 0.84
rEF = 1 - rcolumns = 1 0.84
= 0.16
Ii

47

Node H
This node has the same distribution factors as node E
due to symmetrical arrangement of the columns, thus;
rHD = rHM = rEA = 0.42
rcolumns
= 0.84
rHG = rEF
= 0.16
Node F
rFE =

IFE/LFE
.
IFE/LFE + IFG/LFG + 2IFK/LFK
rFE = 0.8/8
=
0.1000
0.8/8 + 0.8/10 + 2x0.8/3 0.7133
rFG = (0.8/10) /0.7133
= 0.11
rFK = rFB = (0.8/3)/0.7133 = 0.374,
rcolumns = 0.75

= 0.14

48

Node G
Due to symmetry, the distribution factors are the same
rGH = rFE
= 0.14
rGF = rFG
= 0.11
rGL = rGC = rFK = 0.374,
rcolumns
= 0.75

49

Tracing the maximum moment point

Bending moment in a beam subjected to uniformly
distributed load of w per metre, at distance x from support
E is found by the following expressions:
M x M EF V .x w .
dM
V w .x 0 ,
dx

V
x
w

for

max imum

x
2
moment

po int

(= distance at maximum moment point)

V AB

wL M AB M BA

2
L
50

Moment distribution for load case I

Node

cols

EF

FE

cols

FG

GF

cols

GH

HG

cols

Dist. Factor

0.84

0.16

0.14

0.75

0.11

0.11

0.75

0.14

0.16

0.84

FEM (kN.m)
Balance

0
+161

-192
+31

+192
+116

0
+621

-1020
+91

1020
-91

-192

+192

Carry-over
Balance

-49

+58
-9

+16
+4

+23

-46
+3

+46
-3

Carry-over
Balance

-2

+2
0

-5
+1

+4

-1
+1

+1
-1

(kN.m)

+110

-110

+324

+648

-972

+972

-648

-324

+110

-110

-116

172

-612

612

-172

116

Shear V = M/L +
WL/2
Reaction kN
Span moment kNm

116

784
77

784
558

116
77

Max moment is at 3.22 m from E or H and at mid-span of the middle span.

51

Calculations for Load Case II

Fixed end moments:
MEF = - MFE = MGH = -MHG = 122.4 x 8/12 = 653 kNm
MFG = -MGF = 122.4 x 10/12 = 1020 kNm
J

K
1 2 2 .4 k N /m

L
1 2 2 .4 k N /m

1 2 2 .4 k N /m
H

B
Figure 1.2.2: Load
case II

D
52

Moment distribution for load case II

Node

cols

EF

FE

cols

FG

GF

cols

GH

HG

cols

Dist. Factor

0.84

0.16

0.14

0.75

0.11

0.11

0.75

0.14

0.16

0.84

FEM (kN.m)
Balance

0
+549

-653
+104.
5

+653
+51.4

0
+275

-1020
+40.4

+1020
-40.4

-653

+653

-21.6

+25.7
-4.11

+52.3
-4.5

-24

-20.2
-3.5

+20.2
+3.5

Carry-over
Balance

+2

-2.3
+0.4

-2.06
+0.04

+0.2

+1.8
0

-1.8
0

(kN.m)

+529

-529

+750.
2

+251.
2

-1001.5

+1001.
5

251.2

750.2

+529

-529

-462

517

-612

+612

-517

+462

Carry-over
Balance

Shear V = M/L +
WL/2
Reaction kN
Span Moment
kNm

462

1129
343

1129
529

462
343

Maximum moment is at 3.77 m from E or H, and at 5.0 m from F for the middle span.
After moment distribution shear forces, reactions and span moments are calculated
in the normal way.
53

Load case III

Fixed end moments as determined above to be
653 kNm and 300 kNm
J

1 2 2 .4 k N /m
E

1 2 2 .4 k N /m

3 6 k N /m
F

Figure 1.2.3: Load case III

54

Moment distribution for load case III

Node

cols

EF

FE

cols

FG

GF

cols

GH

HG

cols

Dist. Factor

0.84

0.16

0.14

0.75

0.11

0.11

0.75

0.14

0.16

0.84

FEM (kN.m)
Balance

0
+548.4

-652.8
104.4

+652.
8
-49.4

0
-64.6

-300
-38.8

+300
+38.8

-52.8

+652.
8

+20.7

-24.7
+4.0

+52.2
-10

-53.7

+19.4
-7.88

-19.4
+7.88

+4.2

-5
+0.8

+2
-0.83

-4.46

+3.94
-0.65

-3.94
+0.65

Carry-over
Balance

+0.35

-0.42
+0.08

+0.4
0

-0.33
0

+0.33
0

(kN.m)

+574

-574

+647

-323

-324

+324

+323

-647

+574

-574

-480

499

-180

180

-499

480

Carry-over
Balance
Carry-over
Balance

Shear V = M/L +
WL/2
Reaction kN
Span moment kNm

480

679
369

679
126

480
369

Maximum moment is at 3.92 m from E or H, and at 5.0 m from F for the middle
span.

55

Bending Moment I
28

324

110
55

972

972

324

110

324

324

55

28

162

162

55

55

324

324
77

77
558

28

162

B e n d in g m o m e n t ( k N .m )

162

28

Figure 1.2.4: Bending moment diagram for load

case I
56

Bending Moment II
133

750

529
265

1002

1002

750

529

126

126

265

133

63

63

265

265

126

126
343

343
529

133

63

B e n d in g m o m e n t ( k N .m )

63

133

Figure 1.2.5: Bending moment diagram for load case II

57

Bending Moment III

144

647

574
287

574
162

162

81

287

287

162
126

369

144

324

324

162

287

144

81

81

B e n d i n g m o m e n t ( k N .m )

369
81

144

Figure 1.2.6: Bending moment diagram for load case III

58

S h e a r fo r c e a n d R e a c tio n s in k N
612

116

[I]

172
116

784

462

517
1129

480

[III]

480

612

612

462

[II]

172
116
784
517

612

462

180
679

462

1129
480

180

499

116

499
679

499

59

Conclusions
1. For multi-storey buildings, the reaction (normal
force) in the column is cumulatively added from
the upper stories including the one being
analysed.
2. Following analysis of all load cases of a subframe, the critical case is taken for design
purposes.

60