EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT
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PHOSPHOLIPIDS
A phospholipid molecule is made up of a phosphate "head" and fatty acid (or
lipid) "tails." The fatty acid tails of a phospholipid molecule are hydrophobic
(they do not like water), while the phosphate heads are hydrophilic (they like
water). Consequently, when many phospholipids are thrown into water, they will
align themselves into a lipid bilayer so that the head groups all face out toward
the water and the tails away from the water.
This is why they are arranged in this way in the cell membrane. Since the fatty
acid tails are hydrophobic, they are the major barrier to water and water-soluble
substances (anything that dissolves in water) such as ions, glucose, urea, and
most of the other molecules found in living organisms.
Fat-soluble substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroid hormones can
penetrate this portion of the membrane with ease since they can "dissolve"
through the lipid region of the membrane.
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MEMBRANE PROTEINS
The other important components of the cell's membrane are the proteins.
Membrane proteins have many different functions, including the following:
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DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a
region of their high concentration to a region of their lower
concentration
The molecules move down a concentration gradient
Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly
As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where
they are evenly spread out. This is when there is no net
movement of molecules from either side.
Diffusion is a passive process which means no energy is used to
make the molecules move, they have a natural kinetic energy
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Substances that are lipid soluble can pass right through the cell membrane, while
those that are water soluble have a tougher time.
Lipid-soluble (or fat-soluble) substances include oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids,
and some steroid hormones. These molecules can diffuse right through the
membrane's lipid bilayer and are not stopped by the hydrophobic fatty acid chains.
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RATE OF DIFFUSION
The speed at which diffusion occurs, measured by the number of
diffusing molecules passing through a membrane per unit time,
depends on
1.
2.
3.
4.
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OSMOSIS
1. Diffusion causes water molecules to distribute themselves
equally on both sides of a permeable membrane
2. Addition of solute molecules that cannot cross the membrane
reduces the number of free water molecules on that side, as
they bind to solute
3. Diffusion then causes free water molecules to move from the
side where their concentration is higher to the solute side,
where their concentration is lower
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OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmosis and the movement of the
membrane partition could be prevented by
an opposing force.
If one compartment contained 180 g/L of
glucose and the other compartment
contained pure water, the osmosis of water
into the glucose solution could be prevented
by pushing against the membrane with a
certain force.
The force that would have to be exerted to
prevent osmosis in the situation just
described is the osmotic pressure of the
solution.
The greater solute concentration of a
solution, the greater its osmotic pressure.
Pure water thus has an osmotic pressure of
zero, and a 360-g/L glucose solution has
twice the osmotic pressure of a 180-g/L
glucose solution
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TONICITY
The term tonicity is used to describe the effect of a solution on the osmotic
movement of water. For example, if an isosmotic glucose or saline solution is
separated from plasma by a membrane that is permeable to water, but not to
glucose or NaCl, osmosis will not occur. In this case, the solution is said to be
isotonic (from the Greek isos = equal; tonos = tension) to plasma
Solutions that have a lower total concentration of solutes than that of plasma, and
therefore a lower osmotic pressure, are hypo-osmotic to plasma
If the solute is osmotically active, such solutions are also hypotonic to plasma.
Red blood cells placed in hypotonic solutions gain water and may bursta
process called hemolysis
When red blood cells are placed in a hypertonic solution (such as sea water),
which contains osmotically active solutes at a higher osmolality and osmotic
pressure than plasma, they shrink because of the osmosis of water out of the cells.
This process is called crenation (crena = notch) because the cell surface takes on
a scalloped appearance
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Facilitated diffusion
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ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions against
their concentration gradients, from lower to higher
concentrations.This transport requires the expenditure of cellular
energy obtained from ATP
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The diffusion of Na+ down its concentration gradient into the cell can then
power the movement of a different ion or molecule against its concentration
gradient.
If the other molecule or ion is moved in the same direction as Na+ (that is,
into the cell), the coupled transport is called either cotransport or symport. If
the other molecule or ion is moved in the opposite direction (out of the cell),
the process is called either countertransport or antiport.
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SYMPORT OR COTRANSPORT
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COUNTERTRANSPORT
An example of countertransport is the uphill extrusion of Ca2+
from a cell by a type of pump that is coupled to the passive
diffusion of Na+ into the cell. Cellular energy, obtained from ATP,
is not used to move Ca2+ directly out of the cell in this case, but
energy is constantly required to maintain the steep Na+
gradient.
Another example of countertransport is the exchange of chloride
(Cl-) for bicarbonate (HCO3) across the red blood cell
membrane. Diffusion of bicarbonate out of the cell powers the
entry of chloride
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COUNTERTRANSPORT
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SUMMARY
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BULK TRANSPORT
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TERIMA KASIH
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