4.

0 Design of Canals
4.1 Design Capacity of Canals
Many procedures have been developed for the
hydraulic design of open channel sections.
The development of Chezy equation was based on
the dimensional analysis of the friction equation
under the assumption that the condition of flow is
uniform.
V = C (RS)
The Manning equation has proved to be very
reliable in practice. The Manning equation is
determined of flow velocity based on the slope of
channel bed, surface roughness of the channel,
cross-sectional area of flow, and wetted perimeter
of flow.

4.0 Design of Canals

4.1 Design Capacity of Canals
For the calculation of the capacity of canals by
above equation, flow of canal is assumed uniform.
The two types of canals are considered
(1) lined or nonerodible;
(2) unlined, earthen, or erodible.
Basic data required for design
1. Shape of the cross section of the canal.
2. Side slope of the canal. 3. Longitudinal bed
slope.
4. Permissible velocities - Maximum and Minimum.
5. Roughness coefficient. 6. Free board.
From the above data we can easily calculate the
capacity of canal by manning and chezy equation
by assuming neither scouring nor silting velocity

4.2

Sediment Transport in Canals

When the average shear stress o on the bed of an

alluvial channel exceeds the critical shear c, the
sediment particles start moving in different ways
depending on the flow condition, sediment size,
fluid and sediment densities, and the channel
condition.
At relatively low shear stresses, the particles roll
or slide along the bed.
The particles remain in continuous contact with
the bed and the movement is generally
discontinuous.
Sediment material transported in this manner is
termed contact load.
On increasing the shear stress, some sediment
particles lose contact with the bed for some time,
and hop or bounce.

4.2

Sediment Transport in Canals

This mode of transport is significant only in case

of noncohesive materials of relatively high fall
velocities
it is difficult to distinguish between saltation load
and contact load, the two are grouped together and
termed bed load,
which is transported on or near the bed.
With further increase in the shear stress, the
particles may go in suspension and remain so due
to the turbulent fluctuations.
The particles in suspension move downstream.
Such sediment material is included in the
suspended load.
The material for bed load as well as a part of the
suspended load originates from the bed of the
channel and, hence, both are grouped together and

4.2

Sediment Transport in Canals

This means that the total sediment load transport

will affect the design of an alluvial channel.
The product of erosion in the catchment and is
appropriately called wash load. The transport rate
of wash load is related to the availability of fine
material in the catchment and its erodibility and is,
normally, independent of the hydraulic
characteristics of the stream.
As such, it is not easy to make an estimate of
wash load.
Method of estimation of total load is to determine
bed load, suspended load, and wash load
individually and then add these together.
The wash load is usually carried without being
deposited and is also not easy to estimate. This
load is, therefore, ignored while analysing channel
stability.

4.3

Tractive force Approach of Canal Design

When water flows in a channel, a force that acts in

the direction of flow on the channel bed is
developed. This force, which is nothing but the drag
of water on the wetted area and is known as the
tractive force.
A particle on the sloping side of a channel is subject
to both a tractive force and a downslope
gravitational component.
It is noted that the tractive force ratio is a function
of the
both
the of
side
slope angle and the angle of repose
In
case
cohesive
of the material.
materials
and fine
noncohesive materials, the
angle of repose is small and
can be assumed to be zero;
i.e.. for these materials the
forces of cohesion are
significantly larger than the

4.3 Tractive force Approach of Canal Design

Consider the shear stress at incipient motion (which
just begins to move particles) for uniform flow.
The tractive force is equal to the gravity force
component acting on the body of water, parallel to
the channel bed.
Gravity component of weight in the direction of
flow is equal to
AL S0
Thus, the average value of the tractive force per
unit wetted area, is equal to
o = AL S0 / PL = R S0
in which P is the wetted perimeter and R is the
hydraulic mean radius;
In most channels, the tractive force is not uniformly
distributed over the perimeter

The maximum tractive force on the bottom is

approximately
o = 0.97 R S0 and on the
sides o = 0.76 R S0 .

4.3

Tractive force Approach of Canal Design

In shields Entrainment Method for design of

channels is based on Shields Entrainment Function
Fs (shear friction Velocity V)
From the Shields graph
Fs = o / (d (Ss-1) =0.056
Where , Ss = specific gravity of grain size = 2.65
o = R S0
So, d = 11RS
The minimum size of the material at bed and bank
of channel of the given R and S

4.4

Design of Stable Canal

Surface water for irrigation is conveyed from its

source to the field by means of canals or channels.
These channels generally have alluvial boundaries
and carry sediment-laden water.
Lane (1) gave the definition of stable channel as
follows:
A stable channel is an unlined earth channel :
(a) which carries water,
(b) the banks and bed of which are not scoured
objectionably by moving water, and
(c) in which objectionable deposits of sediment do
not occur.
This means that over a long period, the bed and
banks of a stable channel remain unaltered even if
minor deposition and scouring occur in the channel.

4.4

Design of Stable Canal

Obviously, silting and scouring in a stable channel

balance each other over a long period of time.
An irrigation channel can have either a rigid
boundary or one consisting of alluvial material.
These channels may have to carry either clear
water or sediment-laden water.
Accordingly, there can be two different types of
problems related to the design of a stable channel.
(i) Rigid-boundary channels
(ii) Alluvial channels

Rigid Boundary Channels

Channels of this type have rigid, i.e., non-erodible,
boundaries like rock cuts or artificial lining.
These channels reduce the seepage loss and high
discharge and reduce the water logging of the lands
adjacent to the channel.
Cost of operation and maintenance of lined
channels are also less.
Lined channel sections are relatively more stable.
The design of such channels is based on the
Mannings equation combined with the continuity
equation. Thus,

A channel section with the minimum wetted

perimeter for a given cross-sectional area A is said
to be the most efficient hydraulic section or, simply,

Alluvial channels
Erodible Channels which Scour but do not silt.
The behaviour of flow in erodible channels is influenced by
several parameters
Unlined channels with channel bed and banks composed of
earth, sand or gravel must be designed so that they
maintain a stable configuration. There are
three procedures.
1. Velocity based Method of maximum permissible
velocity.
2. Regime Theory - Emprical equations for channels with
equilibrium sediment
3. Shear Based - Tractive force methods, Shield analysis.

Alluvial channels
Method of maximum permissible velocity also known as
non erodible velocity:
It is the highest mean velocity that will cause no erosion in
the channel body.
The complexity of the erodible channel design process
results from the fact that in such channels stability is
dependent not only on hydraulic parameters but also on the
properties of the material which composes the bed and
sides of the channel.
A stable channel section is one in which neither
objectionable scour nor deposition occurs.

Alluvial channels
There are three types of unstable sections
The banks and bed of the channel are scoured but no
deposition occurs.
Example: When the channel conveys sediment free water
(or water with only a very small amount of sediment) but
with adequate energy to erode the channel.
Unstable channel with deposition but no scour.
Example: When the water being conveyed carries a large
sediment load at a velocity that permits sedimentation.
Unstable channel with both scour and deposition
occur.
Example: When the material through which the channel is
excavated is susceptible to erosion and the water being
conveyed carries a significant sediment load. These types
of channels can be designed using the method of
maximum permissible velocity.

4.5

Design of Alluvial Canals (Kennedy &

Laceys Theory)

An alluvial channel is defined as a channel in which the

sediment flow characteristics is uniform.
Such a channel is said to be stable if the sediment inflow into
a channel reach is equal to the sediment outflow.
Thus, the channel cross section and the bottom slope do not
change due to erosion or deposition.
Two approaches have been used for the design of stable
alluvial channels:
Tractive force method; and
Regime theory.
The tractive force approach is more rational, since it utilizes
the laws governing sediment transport and resistance to flow.

4.5

Design of Alluvial Canals (Kennedy &

Laceys Theory)

The regime theory is purely empirical in nature and was

developed based on observations on a number of irrigation
canals in the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent.
The first is based on the regime approach in which a set of
empirical equations is used.
These equations have been obtained by analysing the data of
stable field channels.
A more logical method of design of stable alluvial channel
should include the sediment load also.
Since the sediment concentration in these canals is usually
less than 500 ppm by weight,

Kennedys Method

Kennedy collected data from 22 channels of Upper Bari

Doab canal system in Punjab.
His observations on this canal system that the sediment in
a channel is kept in suspension solely by the vertical
component of the eddies which are generated on the
channel bed.
The sediment supporting power of a channel is proportional
to its depth (and not wetted perimeter). On plotting the
observed data, Kennedy obtained the following relation,
known as

critical velocity

Vo=CDn

Kennedys equation. Vo = 0.55 h0.64

Kennedy termed Vo as the critical velocity (in m/s)

Kennedys Method

(This critical velocity should be distinguished from the

critical velocity of flow in open channels
corresponding to Froude number equal to unity)
defined as the mean velocity which will not allow scouring
or silting in a channel having depth of flow equal to h (in
metres).
This equation is, obviously, applicable to such channels
which have the same type of sediment as was present in
the Upper Bari Doab canal system.
On recognising the effect of the sediment size on the
critical velocity, Kennedy modified Eq. to
V = 0.55 m h0.64
in which m is the critical velocity ratio and is equal to V/Vo.
Here, the velocity V is the critical velocity for the relevant
size of sediment while Vo is the critical velocity for the
Upper Bari Doab sediment.

Kennedys Method

This means that the value of m is unity for sediment of the

size of Upper Bari Doab sediment.
For sediment coarser than Upper Bari Doab sediment, m is
greater than 1 while for sediment finer than Upper Bari
Doab sediment, m is less than 1.
Kennedy did not try to establish any other relationship for
the slope of regime channels in terms of either the critical
velocity or the depth of flow.
He suggested the use of the Kutters equation along with
the Mannings roughness coefficient.
Thus, the equations
V = 0.55 m h0.64

Q = AV

Kennedys Method
The design procedure based on Kennedys theory
involves trial. For known Q, n, m, and S,
assume a trial value of h and obtain the critical
velocity V from the Kennedys equation.
From the continuity equation one can calculate the
area of cross-section A and, thus, know the value of
B for the assumed value of h.
Using these values of B and h, compute the mean
velocity from the Mannings equation.
If this value of the mean velocity matches with the
value of the critical velocity obtained earlier, the
assumed value of h and the computed value of B
provide channel dimensions.
If the two velocities do not match, assume another

Limitations of Kennedys theory

1. In the absence of B/Y ratio the Kennedys theory do not
provide a direct answer to fix the channel dimension but
by trial and error.
2. Perfect definition of silt grade and silt charge are not
given
3. Complex phenomena of silt transportation is not fully
accounted and only critical velocity ratio concept is
considered sufficiently
4. There is no provision to decide longitudinal slope under
the scope of the theory

Lindleys Method

Lindley was the first to recognise that width, depth, and the
slope of a channel can all adjust in an alluvial channel for a
given set of conditions.
He stated that when an artificial channel is used to carry
sediment-laden water, both the bed and banks either scour or
silt and thus change depth, gradient, and width until a state of
balance is attained at which condition the channel is said to
be in regime.
The observed width, slope, and depth of the Lower Chenab
canal system were analysed by Lindley
Using n = 0.025 and side slopes as 0.5 H : 1V. He obtained
the following equations :
V= 0.57 h0.57
V = 0.27 B0.355
From both, one can get
B = 7.8 h1.61
It should be noted that these equations do not include
the effect of sediment size on the multiplying coefficient.

Lacey regime theory

Lacey stated that the dimensions width, depth, and slope of
a regime channel to carry a given water discharge loaded
with a given sediment discharge are all fixed by nature.
According to him, the fundamental requirements for a
channel to be in regime are as follows :
The channel flows uniformly in incoherent alluvium.
Incoherent alluvium is the loose granular material which can
scour or deposit with the same ease. The material may
range from very fine sand to gravel, pebbles, and boulders
of small size.
The characteristics and the discharge of the sediment are
constant.
The water discharge in the channel is constant.

The perfect regime conditions rarely exist.

The channels which have lateral restraint (because
of rigid banks) or imposed slope are not considered
as regime channels. For example, an artificial
channel, excavated with width and longitudinal slope
smaller than those required, will tend to widen its
width and steepen its slope if the banks and
bed are of incoherent alluvium and non-rigid.
In case of rigid banks, the width is not widened
but the slope becomes steeper.
Lacey termed this regime as the initial regime.
A channel in initial regime is narrower than it would
have been if the banks were not rigid. This channel
has attained working stability.
If the continued flow of water overcomes the
resistance to bank erosion so that the channel now
has freedom to adjust its perimeter, slope, and depth
in accordance with the discharge, the channel is

The river bed material may not be active at low

stages of the river particularly if the bed is
composed of coarse sand and boulders. However, at
higher stages, the bed material becomes active,
i.e., it starts moving. As such, it is only during the
high stages that the river may achieve regime
conditions. This fact is utilised in solving problems
related to floods in river channels.
Lacey also suggested that for a regime channel the
roughness coefficient as well as the critical velocity
ratio should be dependent on sediment size alone.
Likewise, the non-silting and non-scouring velocity
(included in the critical velocity ratio) shall depend
on the sediment load and the size of the sediment.
Lacey felt that the sediment in an alluvial channel is
kept in suspension by the vertical components of

Plotted the available data of regime channels to

obtain a relationship between the regime velocity V
(in m/s) and the hydraulic radius R (in metres).
He, thus, found that V R1/2 and that the
exponential power did not change with data. He,
therefore, formulated

Design of Line Canals with Economic Analysis

Most of the irrigation channels are earthen channels.
The major advantage of an earth channel is its low initial
cost.
The disadvantages of an earth channel are:
The low velocity of flow maintained to prevent erosion
necessitates larger cross-section of channels,
Excessive seepage loss which may result in water logging
and related problems such as salinity of soils, expensive
road maintenance, drainage activities, safety of foundation
structures, etc.,
Favorable conditions for weed growth which further retards
the velocity, and
Breaching of banks due to erosion and burrowing of
animals.

Design of Line Canals with Economic Analysis

A detailed cost analysis is essential for determining the
economic feasibility of lining a channel.
The true cost of lining is change into annual cost
The cost of lining is compared with the direct and indirect
benefits of lining to determine the economic feasibility of
lining a channel.
Besides economic factors, there might be intangible factors
such as high population density, aesthetics, and so on which
may influence the final decision regarding the lining of a
channel

Economics of Canal Lining

The economic viability of lining of a canal is decided on the

basis of the ratio of additional benefits derived from the lining
to additional cost incurred on account of lining.
The ratio is worked out as follows:
Let C = cost of lining in Rs/sq. metre
s and S = seepage losses in unlined and lined canals,
respectively, in cubic metres per square metre of wetted
surface per day of 24 hrs.
p and P = wetted perimeter in metres of unlined and lined
sections, respectively,
T = total perimeter of lining in metres,
d = number of running days of the canal per year,

Economics of Canal Lining

W = value of water saved in rupees per cubic metre,

L = length of the canal in metres,
y = life of the canal in years,
M = annual saving in rupees in operation and
maintenance due to lining, taking into account the
maintenance expenses on lining itself,
B = annual estimated value in rupees of other benefits for
the length of canal under consideration. These will include
prevention of water logging, reduced cost of drainage for
adjoining lands, reduced risk of breach, and so on.

Economics of Canal Lining

The annual value of water lost by seepage from the unlined

section = pLsdW rupees.
The annual saving in value of water otherwise lost by
seepage = (pLsdW PL SdW) rupees
= {LdW (ps PS)} rupees
Total annual benefits resulting from the lining of canal
Bt = {LdW (ps PS) + B + M} rupees
Additional capital expenditure on construction of lined canal
= TLC rupees
If the prevalent rate of interest is x per cent per year, the
annual instalment a (rupees) required to be deposited each
year (at its beginning) for a number of y years to amount to
TLC plus its interest at the end of y years is determined by
the following equation:

For lining to be economically feasible, the value of

a should be less than the annual benefit Bt i.e.,
the ratio Bt/a should be greater than unity.

Types of Canal Lining

Types of lining are generally classified according to the
materials used for their construction.
Concrete, rock masonry, brick masonry, natural clays of low
permeability, and different mixtures of rubble, plastic, and
asphaltic materials are the commonly used materials for
canal lining.
The suitability of the lining material is decided by:
economy,
structural stability,

durability,
reparability,
impermeability,
hydraulic efficiency, and

resistance to erosion

Types of Canal Lining

The principal types of lining are as follows:
(i) Concrete lining,
(ii) Shotcrete lining,
(iii) Precast concrete lining,
(iv) Lime concrete lining,
(v) Stone masonry lining,
(vi) Brick lining,
(vii) Boulder lining,
(viii) Asphaltic lining, and
(ix) Earth lining.

Failure of Canal Lining

The main causes of failure of lining are the water pressure that
developed behind the lining material due to high water table,
saturation of the embankment by canal water, sudden
lowering of water levels in the channel, and saturation of
the embankment sustained by continuous rainfall.
When the water level in canal was raised and lowered the
banks suffering from instability due to erosion and seepage
through the banks may be occurs.
In order to minimize the seepage, a secondary berms were
constructed along the length of bank at various locations.
The embankment of a relatively pervious soil does not need
drainage measures behind the lining.
In all situations requiring drainage measures to reduce pore
pressure behind the lining, a series of longitudinal and
transverse drains satisfying filter criteria are provided.