Ionization of Water
Acids, bases, and pH
Buffers
Physiological buffers
Monitoring Acidity
The Henderson-Hasselbalch
(HH) equation is derived from
the equilibrium expression
for a weak acid.
[A ]
pH = pKa + log
[HA]
Monitoring Acidity
The HH equation enables us to
calculate the pH during a titration and
to make predictions regarding buffer
solutions.
What is a titration?
It is a process in which carefully
measured volumes of a base are
added to a solution of an acid in order
to determine the acid concentration.
Monitoring Acidity
When chemically equal (equivalent)
amounts of acid and base are present
during a titration, the equivalence
point is reached.
The equivalence point is detected by
using an indicator chemical that
changes color or by following the pH
of the reaction versus added base,
i.e. a titration curve.
pH
pH=5.13
Buffer Solutions
Buffer: a solution that resists
change in pH when small amounts
of strong acid or base are added.
A buffer consists of:
a weak acid and its conjugate base or
a weak base and its conjugate acid
Buffer Solutions
Maximum buffer effect occurs at
the pKa for an acid.
Effective buffer range is +/- 1 of
the pK value for the acid or base.
eg. H2PO4-/HPO42-, Ka=7.20
buffer range 6.20 - 8.20 pH
Buffer Solutions
High concentrations of acid
and conjugate base give a
high buffering capacity.
Buffer systems are chosen
to match the pH of the
physiological situation,
usually around pH 7.
Buffer Solutions-4
Within cells the primary buffer is
the phosphate buffer:
H2PO4-/HPO42 The primary blood buffer is the
bicarbonate system: HCO3-/H2CO3.
Proteins also provide buffer
capacity. Side chains can accept
or donate protons.
Buffer Solutions
A zwitterions is a compound
with both positive and
negative charges.
Zwitterionic buffers have
become common because
they are less likely to cause
complications with
biochemical reactions.
Buffer Solutions
N-tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl2-aminoethane sulfonate
(TES) is a zwitterions buffer
example.
(HOCH2)3CN+H2CH2CH2SO3-
Buffer Solutions
Buffers work by chemically tying up
acid and base. Eg.:
HCO3- + H3O+
H2CO3 + H2O
H2CO3 + OH-
HCO3- + H2O
Buffer Solutions
Calculate the ratio of lactic acid to lactate
in a buffer at pH 5.00. The pKa for lactic
acid is 3.86
Biomolecules
Biological Molecules
Monomers / Polymers
Sugar / Polysaccharide
Nucleotide / Nucleic Acids
Amino Acid / Polypeptides
Amino acids:
Amino acids are organic acids containing an
amine group. The most common amino acids are
the L- -amino acids.
It is important to understand the following about
amino acid structure:
Only 20 L- - amino acids are used to make
proteins.
Rare exceptions are bacterial membrane proteins,
which contain a few D-Amino Acids, modified
amino acids - primarily lysine and proline, and
occasional incorporation of the rare amino acid,
selenocysteine).
C
R
D-Family a.a.
O2C
NH3+
NH3+
R
L-family a.a.
O
NH2 - CH - C - OH
R
NH3 - CH - C - O
R
_
NH3 - CH - C - O
- NH - CH - C R
R
General structral
features of -amino
acids
+
NH3-CH-C(O) NH-CH-C(O)-O-
Peptide bond
Type
Name
Symbol
Non-polar
side chain
-H
- CH3
Glycine
Gly
Alanine
Ala
- CH (CH3)2
Valine
Val
- CH2CH(CH3)2
Leucine
Leu
-CH(CH3)CH2-CH3
Isoleucine
Ile
-CH2C6H5
Phenylalanine
Phe
Trptophan
Trp
Proline
Pro
(Proline is
the only 1 of
the standard
20 a.a. in
which the
amino group
is itself
joined to one
end of the
side chain)
CH2
N
H
OOC
H2N+
Type
- CH2OH
Side
chain has - CH(CH3)OH
a hydroxyl
group
Name
Symbol
Serine
Ser
Threonine
Thr
Tyrosine
Tyr
Aspartic
Side
- CH2CO2H
acid
chain has
a carboxyl
Glutamic
CH
CH
CO
H
2
2
2
group or
acid
amide
- CH2 CONH2
Asparagine
group
- CH2 CH2 CONH2 Glutamine
Asp
Glu
Asn
Gln
Type
Side
- (CH2)4NH2
chain has
(CH2)3NHC(NH)NH2
a basic
amino
N
group
CH
2
Side
chain
contains
sulphur
N
H
- CH2SH
- CH2 CH2 SCH3
Name
Symbol
Lysine
Lys
Arginine
Arg
Histidine
His
Cysteine
Cys
Methionine
Met
Sugars
Sugars and polymers of them are known as
carbohydrates because their general formulas can
all be written in a simple form as (CH2O)x, as if
they were a hydrated form of carbon. Another term
used to describe sugar-based molecules is rooted
in the word "saccharide" (from the Latin,
saccharum; meaning sugar).
Single units of sugar, such as glucose, are called
monosaccharides. Sugars can be readily linked
together to form disaccharides (contains two
sugars),olegosaccharides
(contains several
sugars) and polysaccharides (contains many
sugars).
CH
OH
CH2-OH
C-H
D-Erythrose
CH
C-H
D-Glyceraldehyde
OH
HO
OH
C H2-OH
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
H
H
C-H
OH
OH
HO
H
C-H
H
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
C H2-OH
Altrose
HO
HO
C-H
H
H
HO
HO
OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
C H2-OH
Mannose
H
H
C H2-OH
C-H
OH
Xylose
C-H
OH
H
H
HO
Glucose
OH
C H2-OH
C H2-OH
C-H
OH
Arabinose
Allose
C H2-OH
Ribose
C H2-OH
O
C-H
HO
C H2-OH
O
C-H
OH
D-Threose
C H2-OH
O
C-H
Lyxose
O
C-H
C-H
C-H
OH
OH
HO
H
H
OH
H
HO
OH
H
HO
HO
H
H
HO
HO
HO
OH
OH
OH
C H2-OH
Gulose
OH
C H2-OH
Idose
C H2-OH
Galactose
C H2-OH
Talose
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
H
C
OH
HO
H
H
OH
-glucose
H
C
OH
C
OH
HO
H
C
OH
O
H
OH
Open form of
glucose
C
H
HO
OH
H
OH
C
H
-glucose
H
C
HO
CH2OH
O
C
H
OH H
C
C
H
OH
-glucose
H
C
HO
H
C
OH
CH2OH
O
C
H
H
H
OH
O
C
C
C
H
OH H
Open form of
glucose
C
HO
CH2OH
O
C
H
OH H
C
C
H
OH
-glucose
OH
C
H
Twist this
end up
Chair form
Boat form
Then twist
this end down
Chair form
The
boat
form
is
another conformation
of the ring that permits
normal bond angles,
and
the
ring
has
enough flexibility to be
able to twist from the
chair to the boat form.
H H
OH
OH
H
OH
- ribose
HO CH2
H H
OH
OH
-2-deoxyribose
Lipids
Lipids are a class of nonpolar molecules
that include the fats, fatty acids, lipid
soluble vitamins, cholesterol, waxes,
soaps, glycerophospholipids,
sphingolipids, and others.
Lipids are found in the membranes of
cells, the endoplasmic reticulum, and in
specialized fat storage cells called
adipocytes.
Lipids
Hydrolysable
Lipids
Non-hydrolysable
Lipids
Sterols
Terpenes
Others
Waxes
Triacylglycerols
Animal
fats
Vegetable
oil
Esters of
glycerol
Esters of
sphingosine
Plasmalogens
Phosphatides
Cerebrosides
Sphingomyelins
Lipids
are
broadly
subdivided
according
to
the
presence
of
hydrolysable
groups
(consist
of
compounds with one or more groups
that react with water) [ester groups]
Neutral fats include such familiar food
products as butter fat, tallow, olive oil,
palm oil, etc...
Non-hydrolysable group, which lack
group that react with water such as
steroids that include cholesterol and
many sex hormones.
Nucleotides
Ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides
(collectively called nucleotides) are the building
blocks of the nucleic acids, RNA and DNA,
respectively. Nucleotides are composed of a
sugar, a phosphate, and a base.
The composition of DNA differs from that of RNA
in only two respects. First, DNA uses
nucleotides containing the sugar deoxyribose.
RNA's nucleotides contain the sugar ribose.
Second, DNA uses the bases adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thyamine. RNA uses the bases
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil.
base NH2
A nucloetide is
C
N
the repeating
C
phosphate N
unit of the DNA
CH
or RNA polymer. ester
C N
HC
The nitrogen
N
2base is attached
O3PO CH2
b to the ribose
O
(RNA) or
H
H
deoxyribose
H
(DNA) ring. The
H
sugar is
OH H
phosphorylated
deoxyribose sugar
at carbon 5
NH2
NH2
N
C N
N
O P O CH2
O
O
H
H
H
H
OH H
O
HC
CH
N
O
O P O CH2
O
H
2- deoxy
Deoxyadenosine
5-monophosphate
C
N
CH
CH
H
H
OH
Deoxycytidine
5-monophosphate
O
C
C N
C N
C
H2N
N
-2
O3PO CH2
O
H
H
H
H
H
O
guanine
CH
N
C
O
C
O
N
O P O CH2
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
O
3-5
link
CH3
C
CH
thymine
NH2
C
N
CH
C
CH
O
N
O P O CH2
O
O
H
H
H
H
OH H
3-end
cytosine
Vitamins
Hormones
A hormone is a substance that is synthesized and
secreted by specialized cells and carried via the
circulation to target cells, where it elicits specific
changes in the metabolic behavior of the cell by
interacting with a hormone-specific receptor.
Chemically, the hormones in vertebrate
metabolism include
(1) peptides or polypeptides, such as insulin or
glucagon
(2) steroid, including glucocorticoids and the sex
hormones
(3) amino acid derivatives, including the
catecholamines and thyroxine.
Agriculture
Medicine
Nutrition
Clinical Chemistry
Pharmacology
Toxicology