Fig. 23.

gas
exchange

Fig. 23.7

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJedwz_r2Pc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6mLc9gOgVA

Fig. 23.18

Respiration Processes (Table 23.2)

1St Step in Respiration:

Pulmonary Ventilation: air enters & exits lungs ("breathing")
Respiration Mechanics: Fig. 23.17; 23.20; 23.21
Transpulmonary) pressure:
intrapulmonary (intraalveolar) & intrapleural pressure difference;
keeps airways open
Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P2V2
gases always fill their containers

Fig. 22.17

The lungs cling to the chest

wall as it expands outward
because of the surface
tension caused by the
serous fluid within the
pleural cavity
Lungs are elastic and pull
back in
The contrasting outward
pull of the chest wall & the
opposing inward pull of the
of the lungs creates a
vacuum within the pleural
cavity

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Inspiration

Figure 23.20

Expiration

Thoracic
cavity

Thoracic
cavity

Vertical
changes

Diaphragm contracts;
vertical dimensions of
thoracic cavity increase

Diaphragm relaxes;
vertical dimensions of
thoracic cavity narrow

Lateral
changes

Ribs are elevated and

thoracic cavity widens

Ribs are depressed and

thoracic cavity narrows

Anteriorposterior
changes

Inferior portion of
sternum moves anteriorly and
thoracic cavity expands

Inferior portion of
sternum moves posteriorly and
thoracic cavity compresses

Figure 23.21c

Atmosphere

Atmospheric
pressure
(760 mm Hg)
Pleural cavity
(intrapleural pressure)
756 mm Hg
760 mm Hg

Alveolar volume of lungs

(intrapulmonary pressure)

(c) Volumes and pressures with breathing (at the end of an expiration)

Boyles gas law:

Relationship of
Volume and Pressure
At a constant temperature,
the pressure (P) of a gas
decreases if the volume (V)
of the container increases,
and vice versa
P1 and V1 represent the initial
conditions and P2 and V2 the
changed conditions
P1V1 = P2V2
Inverse relationship between
gas pressure and volume

Figure 23.21a
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Decreased
pressure

Increased
volume
Increased
pressure

Pressure decreases as
volume increases

(a) Boyles Law

Decreased
volume

Pressure increases as
volume decreases

Figure 23.21b
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Area A

Area A

Area A

Airflow

Airflow
Increased
pressure B

Area B

Decreased
pressure B

Volume B

Volume B

Area B

Area B
Pressure A = Pressure B
No net movement of air

(b) Pressure gradients

Area B increases in volume and

decreases in pressure. Air
moves from area A into area B

Area B decreases in volume and

increases in pressure. Air
moves from area B into area A

Fig. 23.22
A single breath of
quiet breathing
moves approx.
500ml of air into
the lungs
(=tidal volume).

Inspiration: thoracic dimensions (lung volume) increases as:

-Diaphragm contracts (flattens & moves inferiorly)
-External intercostals contract (moves ribs superiorly)
-This drops intrapulmonary pressure (relative to atmosphere)
-Air rushes in to lungs along pressure gradient
-Forced inspiration: accessory muscles (sternocleidomastoid,
scalenes, pectoralis minor, serratus posterior superior, erector
spinae) further increase thoracic volume so more air enters down its
pressure gradient

Figure 23.19

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
Serratus posterior
superior

Pectoralis minor
Erector spinae
Transversus thoracis

External
intercostal

Serratus posterior
inferior

External intercostal

Internal intercostal

Diaphragm

Diaphragm

External oblique

Transversus abdominis

Anterior view

Posterior view
Muscles of Breathing

Muscles of
quiet breathing

The diaphragm forms the rounded floor of the thoracic cavity and is dome-shaped when relaxed. It alternates between the relaxed
domed position and the contracted flattened position and changes the vertical dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
The external intercostals extend from a superior rib inferiomedially to the adjacent inferior rib. These elevate the ribs and increase the
transverse dimensions of the thoracic cavity.

Muscles of
forced inspiration

The sternocleidomastoid attaches to sternum and clavicle; lifts rib cage.

The scalenes attach to ribs 1 and 2; elevates ribs 1 and 2.
The pectoralis minor attaches to ribs 35; elevates ribs 35.
The serratus posterior superior attaches to ribs 25 on its anterior surface; lifts ribs 25.
The erector spinae is a group of deep muscles along the length of the vertebral column; extends the vertebral column.

Muscles of
forced expiration

The internal intercostals lie deep and at right angles to the external intercostals; depress the ribs and decrease the transverse
dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
The abdominal muscles (primarily the external obliques and transversus abdominis) compress the abdominal contents, forcing the
diaphragm into a higher domed position and the rectus abdominus pulls the sternum and rib cage inferiorly.
The transversus thoracis extends across the inner surface of the thoracic cage and attaches to ribs 26; depresses ribs 26 .
The serratus posterior inferior extends between the ligamentum nuchae and the lower border of ribs 912; depresses ribs 912.

Expiration: passive (due to lung elasticity/recoil)

-Diaphragm relaxes (arches and moves superiorly)
-External intercostals relax (move ribs inferiorly)
- Lung volume decreases & intrapulmonary pressure rises
-Gas flows out of lungs
- Forced expiration: abdominal wall muscles contract to move diaphragm
superiorly & depress the ribs. Internal intercostals depress rib cage to
decrease thoracic volume. Transversus thoracis and serratus posterior
inferior depress the ribs further.

How do the lungs work?

Relaxed Inhalation
Relaxed Expiration

How do the lungs work?

Forced Inhalation
Forced Expiration

Control of Respiration Fig. 23.23

Normal quiet breathing:
VRG (ventral respiratory group) = rhythm generator
PRG (pontine respiratory group) = smooths breathing pattern
DRG (dorsal respiratory group) = modifies VRG
eupnea: average rate of quiet breathing; 12-15 breaths/minute
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Forced breathing:
VRG stimulated by DRG to stimulate muscles of forced
expiration (abdominals & internal intercostals) through the
phrenic and intercostal nerves

Fig. 23.23

Other influences on breathing:

higher cortical brain centers/voluntary control [+/-]
(can override medullary centers) talking, singing, breath-holding
hypothalamus-response to pain/emotional stimuli) [+/-]
heat can increase breathing rate and cold decrease breathing rate
stretch & irritant receptors in lungs [-]
Hering-Breuer/inhalation reflex (prevents lung over-stretching)
peripheral chemoreceptors ( CO2, H+ O2) [+]
in aortic arch & carotid bodies via CN IX & CN X
central chemoreceptors in medulla ( CO2, H+) [+]
CSF is not buffered so CO2 CSF pH+ hyperventilation
(note: if CO2 too lowfainting as cerebral b.v. constrict)
muscle and joint receptors [+]

Pulmonary Ventilation: the amount of air taken in during 1 minute

tidal volume x respiration rate = pulmonary ventilation
500 ml
x 12 breaths/minute = 6000 ml/min

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

Figure 23.24

Table 23.4

2nd Step in Respiration:

Alveolar Gas Exchange: air exchange (lungsblood);
Fig. 23.11 & 23.12 microscopic structures
respiratory bronchioles alveolar ducts alveoli
alveoli = thin-walled air sacs; site of gas exchange; elastic
fibers outside
alveolar type I cell: predominant cell in walls of alveoli
alveolar type II (septal) cell: secretes surfactant that
opposes the collapse of the alveolus
macrophages (dust cells): engulf pathogens/irritants

Lungs have 2 circulations:

Pulmonary Circulation: Fig. 23.16
deoxygenated systemic blood delivered to lungs from right
ventricle via pulmonary trunk to pulmonary arteries
pulmonary capillary networks; oxygenated systemic blood
delivered to left atrium of heart via pulmonary veins to left
ventricle aorta for circulation to rest of body
Bronchial Circulation
bronchial arteries: arise from thoracic aorta to provide
systemic blood to all lung tissue except alveoli; bronchial veins
drain to pulmonary veins; this input of deoxygenated blood
lowers the partial pressure of oxygen slightly
(from 104mm Hg at the site of alveolar capillary exchange to
95mm Hg at the site of systemic gas exchange)

Fig. 23.16

RESPIRATORY ZONE: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

Fig. 23.11

Fig. 23.12

3rd Step in Respiration:

Gas Transport of gases: blood transport of gases
through circulatory system
4th Step in Respiration:
Systemic Gas Exchange: 02 and C02 exchange (bloodtissues)

Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood (Fig. 23.25)

Fig. 23.26

Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling

Bronchioles dilate in response to an increase in PCO2 and constrict in response to

a decrease in PCO2
Pulmonary arterioles dilate in response to an increase in PO2 or a decrease in
PCO2 and constrict in response to a decrease in PO2 or an increase in PCO2

Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood

Oxygen
dissolved in plasma (2%)
bound to hemoglobin (Hb) within RBCs (98%)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------HHb

O2

HbO2

H+

(reduced hemoglobin)
(saturated hemoglobin)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- rapid & reversible; almost complete saturation at 70 mm Hg (Fig. 23.28)
- bound oxygen facilitates binding until 98% of Hb is saturated (arteries)
PCO2 , blood H+, temp., BPG (2,3-bisphosphoglycerate) release O2
O2 unloading accelerated where it is needed (curve right shift)
- HbO2 unloading, also unloads NOb.v. dilationO2 delivery to tissues

Fig. 23.28

Fig. 23.29

Carbon Dioxide
Fig. 23. 27
dissolved in plasma (7%)
bound to hemoglobin within RBCs (about 23%)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------Hb

CO2

HbCO2

(carbaminohemoglobin)
--------------------------------------------------------------------CO2 rapidly dissociates from Hb in lungs (down pressure gradient)
CO2 loaded onto Hb in tissues (down pressure gradient)

as bicarbonate (HCO3-) in plasma (about 70%)

CO2 +
H 2O
most enters RBCs

H2CO3 H+
(carbonic acid)

HCO3(bicarbonate)

Fig. 22.22a

CO2 H+ release of O2 from Hb (Bohr effect)

deoxygenated Hb, can now carry more CO 2 (Haldane effect)
Fig. 23.27 & 23.30 (overview)

Fig. 23.27