Lecture 4: Sight Distance

TR 320 Highway Geometric

Design

Objective of the Lecture

To introduce the concept of sight
distance in geometric design of
highways
The learner should be able to:
Explain the concept and apply
relevant SD in design of highway
elements
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General
Efficient and safe operation of
highways depends on the drivers
ability to see ahead
For safety on highways the designer
should provide sufficient SD that
drivers can control the operation of
their vehicles to avoid striking an
unexpected object in the travelled way
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Aspects of Sight Distance:`

Stopping sight distance applicable
to all highways
Passing sight distance applicable
to two-lane highways
Decision SD on complex locations
Criteria for measuring these
distances for use in design

Sight Obstructions
On tangent roadway the road surface
at some point on a crest vertical curve
On horizontal curves:
The surface of the roadway at some point
on a crest vertical curve
A physical feature outside the travelled
way in the line of sight of the driver e.g.
cut slope, longitudinal barrier, foliage, a
tree, fog, a bridge approach fill slope
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Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of the
roadway ahead that is visible to the driver
stopping sight distance: The
distance needed for a driver to stop a
vehicle traveling at design speed
based on design conditions.
Two components: Perception reaction
distance and Braking distance
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Time is needed for a driver to

perceive an object , decide to
stop and apply the brakes
The distance travelled during
this process is the perception
reaction distance = V x t

Reaction Time
The reaction time depends on many
variables including:
Speed
Driver age and natural rapidity with which
the driver reacts
Distance to the object and its nature

In experiments it varies from about 0.5

seconds for expected events to more
than 1.5 for unexpected events/objects
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 AASHTO recommends reaction time

of 2.5 seconds for the design of
geometric elements
This is appropriate for conditions
encountered in actual driving on
public roads.

Braking distance
This is the distance travelled
after the application of brakes
For a level ground:
d = 0.039 V2/a
d= braking distance in m
V = design speed in km
a = deceleration rate m/s/s

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The sum of the perception

reaction and braking distance
is the stopping sight distance
d = 0.278Vt + 0.039 V2/a
t = 2.5 sec

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On grade the equation is

modified as follows:
d = 0.278Vt + V2/254{(a/9.81) +/-G)}
We tend to use d = 0.278Vt + V2/254{(f
+/- G)}
However, grade corrections for two-lane
roads are not necessary because as a
general rule at any point on a road more
SD is available on the downgrade
compared to the upgrade
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Consideration for trucks

Recommended SSD are based on PC
operations
HGV generally have longer SD because of
the higher drivers eye height
So even though they take longer to stop
the elevated seat position for the driver
more than compensate for this
However, it is recommended to provide
longer SSD when there is sight restriction
due to horizontal curvature on a
downgrade
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Decision sight distance

Relevant when longer than SSD are
necessary to allow drivers perform
alternative manoeuvers
Examples See recommended
values in the text
Intersection and interchanges
Changes in cross section
Areas of concentrated demand
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Passing sight distance: two

lane highways
PSD is needed for overtaking slower
vehicles (usually HGV)
This is accomplished on lanes
regularly used by opposing traffic
It is therefore necessary for the
overtaking driver to be able to see a
sufficient distance ahead to complete
the passing manoeuvre in safety
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Assumptions for minimum

Passing Sight Distance
(PSD)
Overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform

speed
The passing vehicle has slowed down and
trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters a
passing section
When passing section is reached , the
passing driver needs a short period of
time to perceive the clear passing section
and to react to start the manoeuvre
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 Passing manoeuvre is accomplished

under delayed start and hurried return
in the face of oncoming traffic The
passing vehicle accelerates during the
manoeuvre and average speed during
the occupancy of the opposing lane is
15 km/h higher than the overtaken
vehicle
When passing vehicle returns to its lane
there is a suitable clearance length
between it and an oncoming vehicle in
the opposing lane
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Elements of PSD for twolane highways

D1 distance traversed during perception

reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on
the opposing lane

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 D2 Distance travelled while the

passing vehicle occupies the opposing
lane
D3 Distance between the passing
vehicle at the end of its manoeuvre and
the opposing vehicle safety clearance
D4 Distance traversed by an opposing
vehicle for two thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the right lane
this is two-thirds of d2 above

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Design Values
Based on field observations of average
drivers behaviour
Exhibit 3.5 and 3.6, 3.7
In designing highways these distances
should be exceeded as much as
practical and passing sections be
provided as often as can be done at
reasonable cost to provide as many
passing opportunities as practical
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Sight distance on multilane

highways
In each direction minimum SSD must be
provided not necessary to consider PSSD
Providing more than minimum stopping
SD is preferred
Passing manoeuvre must be accomplished
within the limits of the travelled way for
each direction= forbid crossing of the
centreline of four-lane undivided highway
in order to overtake
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Criteria for measuring SD

Sight distance is the distance along a
roadway throughout which an object of
specified height is continuously visible
to the driver
SD depends on drivers eye above the
road surface, specified object height
above the road surface and height and
lateral position of sight obstructions
within drivers line of sight
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Height of drivers eye

For passenger vehicle = 1 080 mm
above road surface
For large trucks drivers eye height
varies from 1 800 to 2 400 mm.
Recommended value for design is 2
330 mm above the roadway surface.

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Height of Object
For SSD recommended value is 600
mm above the road surface
(AASHTO)
Reason: reasonable size of object that
might potentially be encountered on the
road and drivers ability to perceive and
react to such situations-rear brake lights
of an automobile (PC) (formerly a value
of 0.15m was used)
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Height of Object- PSD

For PSD recommended value is 1 080
mm above the road surface
Based on vehicle height of 1 330 mm
less allowance of 250 mm of vehicle
height that need to be seen for another
driver to recognize a vehicle as such
Adequate for night conditions on the
basis of headlight beams rather than the
vehicle itself
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Reading assignment
AASHTO
A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets (2004)
Chapter 3
Pp 109-131

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Thank You

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