Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER

CYCLES

The areas under the

process curves on the
P-v diagram represent
the work done for
closed systems.

CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle
-Most efficient heat engine that
can operate between two fixed
temperatures TH and TL.
-The Carnot heat-engine cycle is
a totally reversible cycle

The areas under the

process curves on the
T-s diagram represent
the heat transfer for
the processes.

For a cycle we know Wnet

= Qnet; therefore, the
areas enclosed on the Pv and T-s diagrams are
equal.

Note the effect of TH and TL on th, Carnot.

The larger the TH the larger the th, Carnot
The smaller the TL the larger the th, Carnot

THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely
high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.

1-2 isothermal heat

addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles

RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR

VAPOR POWER CYCLES
To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the Rankine cycle was
devised.
Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
The simple Rankine cycle has the same component layout as the Carnot cycle.
The simple Rankine cycle continues the condensation process 4-1 until the
saturated liquid line is reached.
1-2: Isentropic compression in pump
2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4: Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

The simple ideal Rankine cycle

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF THE IDEAL RANKINE

CYCLE
PUMP (Q=0)

BOILER (W=0)

CONDENSER (W=0)

TURBINE (Q=0)

Example 1
Compute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle for which steam
leaves the boiler as superheated vapor at 6 MPa, 350 oC, and is condensed
at 10 kPa.

P2 = P3 =
6 MPa

P2 = P3 = 6 MPa
T3 = 350oC

P2 = P3 =
6 MPa

350oC

P 1 = P4 =
10 kPa

P1 = P4 =
10 kPa
P1 = P4 = 10 kPa

Using the steam Tables A-5:

kJ
h

191.81
1
f
kg
P1 10 kPa

Sat. liquid
m3
v v f 0.00101
1
kg

w pump v1 ( P2 P1 ) h2 h1
h2 wpump h1
kJ
kJ
191.81
kg
kg
kJ
197.86
kg
6.05

w pump v1 ( P2 P1 )
m3
kJ
0.00101 (6000 10) kPa 3
kg
m kPa
kJ
6.05
kg
3

We find the properties at state 3

from the superheated tables A-6:

kJ
h

3043.9
P3 6000 kPa 3
kg

kJ
T3 350o C
s 6.3357
3
kg K

Now, h2 is found from

The heat transfer per unit mass is

Q&in
qin
h3 h2
&
m
(3043.9 197.86)
2845.1

kJ
kg

kJ
kg

We find the properties at state 4 from the steam tables A-5 by noting
s4 = s3 = 6.3357 kJ/kg-K.

at P4 10kPa : s f 0.6492

kJ
kJ
; s g 8.1488
kg K
kg K

is s4 s f ?

is s f s4 s g ?
is sg s4 ?

wturb h3 h4

s4 s f x4 s fg
x4

The turbine work per unit mass is

s4 s f
s fg

6.3357 0.6492
0.758
7.4996

h4 h f x4 h fg
kJ
kJ
0.758(2392.1)
kg
kg
kJ
2005.0
kg
191.81

kJ
(3043.9 2005.0)
kg
kJ
1038.9
kg

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet wturb wpump

(1038.9 6.05)

kJ
kg

kJ
1032.8
kg
10

The thermal efficiency is

kJ
1032.8
wnet
kg
th

kJ
qin
2845.1
kg
0.363 or 36.3%

Example 2
Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine cycle. Steam
enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.

P1 75 kPa ( sat. liquid )

w pump v1 ( P2 P1 ) 0.001037(3000 75)

refer Table A 5 :

w pump 3.033 kJ / kg

h1 h f 384.44 kJ / kg

w pump v1 ( P2 P1 ) h2 h1

h fg 2278.0 kJ / kg

h2 w pump h1 3.033 384.44

v1 v f 0.001037 m 3 / kg

h2 387.473 kJ / kg

s f 1.2132 kJ / kg.K
s fg 6.2426 kJ / kg.K
5
3

P3 3 MPa

s4 s3

T3 350 C

x4

refer table A 6 :
h3 3116 .1 kJ / kg
s3 6.7450 kJ / kg.K
4

P4 75 kPa
s4 s f
s fg

6.7450 1.2132
0.886
6.2426

h4 h f x4 h fg 384.44 0.886(2278.0)
7

h4 2402.748 kJ / kg

qin h3 h2 3116 .1 387.473 2728.627 kJ / kg

wturbine h3 h4 3116 .1 2402.748

wturbine 713.352 kJ / kg

wnet wturbine w pump 713.352 3.033

wnet 710.319 kJ / kg

10

th

wnet
710.319

0.26
qin
2728.627
OR

10

qout h4 h1 2402.748 384.44 2018.308 kJ / kg

qout
2018.308
th 1
1
0.26
qin
2728.627

DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER

CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources
of irreversibilities.
Isentropic efficiencies

2a and 4a = actual exit states

2s and 4s = isentropic states

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.

Example 3
A steam power plant operates on the cycle as shown in Figure below. If the
isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87 percent and the isentropic efficiency of the
pump is 85 percent, determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle and (b) the net
power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.

P6 10 kPa

P1 9 kPa

refer Table A 5 : int erpolation :

refer Table A 5 :

v1 v f 0.001009 m 3 / kg

s f 0.6492, s fg 7.4996

ws v1 ( P2 P1 )

wa
wa

h f 191.81, h fg 2392.1

wa

ws 0.001009(16000 9)

P
0.85

s6 s5 6.6796 at 15MPa, 600 C

x6

wa , PUMP 18.982 kJ / kg

s fg

0.804

h6 s h f x6 h fg 191.81 0.804(2392.1)
h6 s 2115 .058 kJ / kg

w
T a
ws
wa T ws 0.87(h5 h6 s )

refer Table A 6 :

wa
ws

wa T ws 0.87(h5 h6 s )

h5 3583.1 kJ / kg
h6 s from s6 s5

s6 s f

wa 0.87(3583.1 2115 .058)

2

wa ,TURBINE 1277.197 kJ / kg

qin , BOILER h4 h3
Boiler inlet liquid
refer Table A 7 (15.9 MPa, 35 C ) int erpolation Temp . & Pr ess. :
h3 160.862
Boiler output steam
refer TableA 6 int erpolation at 15.2 MPa, 625 C. :
h4 3645.996
qin , BOILER h4 h3 3645.996 160.862
qin , BOILER 3485.134 kJ / kg

th

wnet wout ,TURBINE win , PUMP 1277.197 18.982

0.361
qin
qin
3485.134

wnet wout ,TURBINE win , PUMP 1258.215 kJ / kg

Wnet m( wnet ) 15

kg
kJ
x1258.215
18873.225kW
s
kg

HOW TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE

RANKINE CYCLE?
Lower condenser pressure from P4 to P4:
- The colored area represents the increase in net work output
- Disadvantages: creates the possibility of air leakage into the
condenser and moisture is increased at turbine exit.

Superheat the vapor/steam

- The colored area represents the increase in the net work
- Total area under the process curve 3-3 represents the increase in the
heat input
- Moisture is reduced at turbine exit (prefer x4 > 85 percent).

Increase boiler pressure (for fixed maximum temperature)

- Automatically raises the temperature at which boiling takes place.
- Disadvantage: Moisture is increased at turbine exit.

THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE

How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

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The single reheat in a modern power

plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which
results from a single reheat.
The reheat temperatures are very close
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure.

The average temperature at which

heat is transferred during reheating
increases as the number of reheat
stages is increased.

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THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE

Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2 at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the heat-addition
process in the boiler takes place at
relatively low temperatures.

A feedwater heater is basically a heat

exchanger where heat is transferred from
the steam to the feedwater either by
mixing the two fluid streams (open
feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).

20

Open Feedwater Heaters

An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.

The ideal regenerative

Rankine cycle with an open
feedwater heater.

21

Closed Feedwater Heaters

Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the
extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two
streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.

22

The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing
network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater
heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater
since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Open feedwater
heaters are simple
and inexpensive and
have good heat
transfer
characteristics. For
each heater, however,
a pump is required to
handle the feedwater.
Most steam power
plants use a
combination of open
and closed feedwater
heaters.

A steam power plant with one open and three closed feedwater heaters.

23