CHAPTER 5

learning

psychology
fourth edition

Learning Objectives
5.1 What does the term learning really mean?
5.2 How was classical conditioning first studied, and what
are the important elements and characteristics of
classical conditioning?
5.3 What is a conditioned emotional response, and how do
cognitive psychologists explain classical conditioning?
5.4 How does operant conditioning occur, and what were the
contributions of Thorndike and Skinner?
5.5 What are the important concepts in operant conditioning?
5.6 What are the schedules of reinforcement?

What is Learning?
Learning:
any relatively permanent
change in behavior
brought about by
experience or practice
When people learn
anything,
to record what they have
learned.
some part of their brain is
physically changed

Not all change is accomplished through learning.

1. Maturation: Changes like an increase in height or the size of the brain are
another kind of change controlled by a genetic blueprint and biology, not
experience.
Example, children learn to walk when they do because their nervous
systems, muscle are strengthened , and sense of balance have reached the
point where walking is possible for them
all factors controlled by maturation, not by how much practice those children
have had in trying to walk.

2. Reflex (involuntary movement or automatic action in response to a stimulus)

Blinking and Sneezing, Pupillary reflex, Shivering

 Ivan Pavlov: Russian

physiologist (person who
studies the workings of the
body)
who discovered classical
conditioning through his work
on digestion in dogs
Classical conditioning:
learning to make a reflexive
response to a stimulus other
than
the original natural stimulus that
normally produces the reflex.

Pavlov and
Classical
Conditioning

1. Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS):
a naturally occurring
stimulus that leads to an
involuntary response
unconditioned means
unlearned or
naturally occurring.
2. Unconditioned
response (UCR):
an involuntary response to
a naturally occurring or
unconditioned stimulus

Classical Conditioning Concepts

3. Conditioned stimulus
(CS):
stimulus that becomes able
to produce a learned reflex
response
by being paired with the
original unconditioned
stimulus
conditioned means
learned
neutral stimulus (NS) can
become a conditioned
stimulus when paired with
an unconditioned stimulus

4. Conditioned response (CR): learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

sometimes called a conditioned reflex
Example:
CS: ice cream truck
CR: salivation when one hears ice cream truck bell

CS
Bunny Rabbit

UCS
Loud Noise

UCR
Startled

UCS
Loud Noise

UCR
Startled

CR
Startled

UCS
Car Crash
CS
Squealing
Brakes
CS
Squealing
Brakes

UCS
Car Crash

UCR
Racing Heart
UCR
Racing Heart

CR
Racing Heart

Figure 5.1 Classical Conditioning

Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus, or
NS.
During conditioning, the sound of the metronome occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS.
The food causes salivation, the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the metronome with
the food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog without any food.
This is learning, and the sound of the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the bell is the CR.

Classical Conditioning Concepts

1. Acquisition:
repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS; the organism is in
the process of acquiring learning
although classical conditioning happens quite easily, there are a few
basic principles that researchers have discovered:
1. CS must come before UCS
2. CS and UCS must come very close together in timeideally, only several
seconds apart
3. neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS several times, often many
times, before conditioning can take place
4. CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other
competing stimuli
distinctive: separate, having a different quality from something else

1.

Stimulus generalization: tendency to respond to a stimulus

that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with
the conditioned response

2. Stimulus discrimination: tendency to stop making a

generalized response to a stimulus that is not similar to the
original conditioned stimulus
because those stimuli were never paired with the
unconditioned stimulus

3. Extinction: disappearance or weakening of a learned

response
following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Emotional Response

Conditioned emotional response (CER or CFR)

specifically the conditioned fear response (CFR) is
an emotional response that results from
classical conditioning, usually from the association
of a relatively neutral stimulus with a painful or
fear-inducing experience.

As a result, the formerly neutral stimulus elicits

fear.

Example: if seeing a dog (a neutral stimulus) is paired

with the pain of being bitten by the dog
(unconditioned stimulus), seeing a dog may become
a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear (conditioned
response).
CERs may lead to phobiasirrational fear
responses.
the emotional response will become associated
with their product.
Example: Sexy models, cute little babies, and
adorable puppies are some of the examples of
stimuli the advertising world uses to tug at our
heartstrings, so to speak.

Figure 5.5 Conditioning of Little Albert

After Little Albert had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he also demonstrated fear to a rabbit, a dog,
and a sealskin coat . Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be
classically conditioned emotional responses?

UCS
Dog Bite

CS
Sight of Dog
CS
Sight of Dog

UCS
Dog Bite

UCR
Frightened

UCR
Frightened
CR
Frightened

Classical Conditioning

UCS
Kiss

CS
Sight of Significant
Other
CS
Sight of Significant
Other

UCS
Kiss

UCR
Racing Heart
UCR
Racing Heart

CR
Racing Heart

Why Classical Conditioning Works

1. Stimulus substitution: original theory in which
Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred
because
the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the
unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely
together.
2. Cognitive perspective: modern theory in which
classical conditioning is seen to occur because
the conditioned stimulus provides information
or an expectancy about the coming of the
unconditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning:
the learning of voluntary
behavior
through the effects of
pleasant
and unpleasant
consequences
to that responses

Operant Conditioning
Thorndikes law of effect
if a response is followed by a pleasurable
consequence, it will tend to be repeated
if a response is followed by an unpleasant
consequence, it will tend not to be repeated

Figure 5.6 Graph of the Time to Learn in Thorndikes Experiment

This is one of the earliest learning curves in the history of the experimental
study of conditioning.
The time required by one of Thorndikes cats to escape from the puzzle box
gradually decreased with trials but with obvious reversals.

Skinners Contribution
Skinner was a behaviorist;
he wanted to study only observable,
measurable behavior
Elaborated Thorndikes Law of Effect
Gave operant conditioning its name
operant: any behavior that is voluntary

Learning depends on what happens

after the response: the
consequence
He developed behavioral
technology

Figure 5.7 A Typical Skinner Box

This rat is learning to press the bar in the wall of the cage in order to get food
In some cases, the light on the top left might be turned on to indicate that pressing the
bar will lead to food or to warn of an impending shock delivered by the grate on the floor
of the cage.

 Reinforcement: any event or

stimulus, that when following a
response,
increases the probability that the
response will occur again
1.primary reinforcer: any reinforcer that
is naturally reinforcing
by meeting a basic biological need,
such as hunger, thirst, or touch

2. secondary reinforcer: any reinforcer

that becomes reinforcer after being
paired with a primary reinforcer,
such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

Reinforcement

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Based on graciousness; Positive or negative
Positive reinforcement:
the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a
pleasurable stimulus
Example: Watching cartoon when do homework
Negative reinforcement:

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or

avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
Example: taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced: removal of
headache!
Remove nagging / murmur in the example of doing homework

Schedules of Reinforcement
Partial reinforcement effect:
a response that is reinforced after somebut not
allcorrect responses tends
to be very resistant to extinction
Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement of each
and every correct response
Example: Think of trying to teach your dog to sit.

Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable interval schedule of
reinforcement:

the interval of time that must pass

before reinforcement becomes

possibleis different for each trial or event
Example: your boss drop by your office
a few times throughout the day to
check your progress?
Fixed interval schedule of
reinforcement:
interval of time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible
is always the same
Example: monthly salary

 Fixed ratio schedule of

reinforcement: number
of responses required
for reinforcement is
always the same
Variable ratio schedule
of reinforcement:
schedule of
reinforcement in which
the number of
responses required for
reinforcement is
different for each trial or
event
Example: Gambling

Learning Objective
5.7 What is punishment and how does it differ from
reinforcement?
5.8 What are some of the problems with using punishment?
5.9 How do operant stimuli control behavior, and what are
some other concepts that can enhance or limit operant
conditioning?
5.10 What is behavior modification, and how can behavioral
techniques be used to modify involuntary biological
responses?
5.11 How do latent learning, insight, and learned helplessness
relate to cognitive learning theory?
5.12 What is observational learning, and what are the four
elements of modeling?
5.13 What is a real-world example of the use of conditioning?

 Punishment:
any event or object when following
a response, makes that response
less likely to happen again

1. Punishment by application:

the punishment of a response by

the addition or experiencing of an
unpleasant stimulus

2. Punishment by removal:

the punishment of a response by

the removal of a pleasurable
stimulus

Punishment

Problems with Punishment

Severe punishment
1. may cause avoidance
of the punisher
instead of the behavior
being punished
2. may encourage lying
to avoid punishment
3. creates fear and
anxiety

How to Make Punishment More Effective

1. Punishment should immediately follow

the behavior that is meant to punish.
2. Punishment should be consistent.
3. Punishment of the wrong behavior should
be paired, whenever possible, with
reinforcement of the right behavior.

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control

Discriminative stimulus: any stimulus, such as a
stop sign or a doorknob,
that provides the organism with a cue for making a
certain response in order to obtain reinforcement
Shaping: reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a
desired complex behavior
Successive approximation: small steps, one after
another, that lead to a particular goal behavior
Question: what is the difference between
discriminative stimulus in classical and operant
conditioning?

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control

1. Extinction occurs if the behavior (response)
is not reinforced.
One way to deal with a childs temper tantrum is
to ignore it;
lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior will
eventually result in extinction
2. Operant conditioned responses also can be
generalized to stimuli that are only similarnot
identicalto the original stimulus
3. Spontaneous recovery ; reoccurrence of a onceextinguished response

Behavior Resistant to Conditioning

Instinctive drift: tendency for an
animals behavior to revert to
genetically controlled patterns
Each animal comes into the world
(and the laboratory) with certain
genetically determined instinctive
patterns of behavior already in
place.
There are some responses that
simply cannot be trained into an
animal regardless of conditioning.
Example: Raccoons commonly
dunk their food in and out of
water before eating.
This washing behavior is controlled by
instinct, and is difficult to change even
using operant techniques.

Behavior Modification
Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning
techniques to bring about desired changes in
behavior

1. Token economy: type of behavior modification in

which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens
2. Time-out: Time-out from reinforcement is a
procedure in which
a child is placed in a different, less-rewarding situation
or setting
whenever he or she engages in undesirable or
inappropriate behaviors.

3. Applied behavior analysis

(ABA): modern term for a form of
behavior modification that uses
shaping techniques to mold a
desired behavior or response
In ABA, skills are broken down to
their simplest steps through a
system of reinforcement.
4. Biofeedback: use of feedback
about biological conditions to bring
involuntary responses such as
blood pressure and relaxation
under voluntary control
5. Neuro-feedback: form of
biofeedback using devices (EEG,
fMRI) to provide feedback about
brain activity.

Cognitive Learning Theory

In the early days of learning, researchers
focus was on behavior.
In the 1950sand more intensely in the
1960smany psychologists were
becoming aware that cognition;
the mental events that take place inside a
persons mind while behaving, could no
longer be ignored.
The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why
the
brain is the most incredible network of
information processing
and interpretation in the body as we learn
things.

 Edward Tolman: early

cognitive scientist
best-known experiments
in learning involved
teaching three groups of
rats the same maze, one
at a time
Group 1
rewarded each time at end
of maze
learned maze quickly
Group 2
in maze every day; only
rewarded on 10th day
demonstrated learning of
maze almost immediately
after receiving reward
Group 3
never rewarded
did not learn maze well

Latent Learning

 On the 10th day, however, something happened that

would be difficult to explain using only
Skinners basic principles.
The second group of rats, upon receiving the
reinforcement for the first time, should have then
taken as long as the first group to solve the maze.
Instead, they began to solve the maze almost
immediately.

Cognitive Map: Learning the maze or cognitive map

Latent learning : learning that remains hidden until its

application becomes useful

Figure 5.9 A Typical Maze

This is an example of a maze such as the one used in Tolmans experiments in latent learning. A rat is placed in the
start box. The trial is over when the rat gets to the end box.

Figure 5.10 Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats

In the results of the classic study of latent learning, Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 was rewarded
for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior of Group 2 on
Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Insight - Kohler
Insight: the sudden
perception of relationships
among various parts of a
problem,
allowing the solution to the
problem to come quickly
cannot be gained through
trial-and-error learning
alone
Aha moment

Learned Helplessness: Seligman

Learned helplessness is a behaviour in which
an organism forced to endure aversive, painful
or otherwise unpleasant stimuli,
becomes unable to avoid those stimuli, even if
they are escapable.
Positive psychology: new way of looking at the
entire concept of mental health and therapy that
focuses on
the adaptive,
creative, and
psychologically
more fulfilling aspects of human experience
rather than on mental disorders

Figure 5.11 Seligmans Apparatus

In Seligmans studies of learned helplessness, dogs were placed in a two-sided box. Dogs that had no prior experience
with being unable to escape a shock would quickly jump over the hurdle in the center of the box to land on the safe
side. Dogs that had previously learned that escape was impossible would stay on the side of the box in which the
shock occurred, not even trying to go over the hurdle.

Observational Learning: Bandura

Observational learning: learning new behavior by
watching a model perform that behavior

Figure 5.12 Banduras Bobo Doll Experiment

In Albert Banduras famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult
model performing aggressive behavior on the later aggressive behavior of children. The children in these photos are
imitating the adult models behavior even though they believe they are alone and are not being watched.

Four Elements of Observational Learning

1. Attention
the learner must first pay attention to the model.

2. Memory
The learner must also be able to retain the
memory of what was done, such as remembering
the steps in preparing a dish that were first seen
on a cooking show.

3. Imitation
The learner must be capable of reproducing, or
imitating, the actions of the model.

4. Motivation
The learner must have the desire to perform the
action.

Real-World Example
LO 5.13 Real-World Example of the Use of Conditioning

Training a cat to use the toilet will involve:

Shaping
preparing the training arena
positive reinforcement on a variable schedule