Chap 4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF MATERIALS
Mechanical Stress
Volumetric Properties
Thermal Properties
Mass Diffusion
Electrical Properties

Physical Properties in Manufacturing

Thermal properties in cutting
cutting temperature
how long tool can be used
In semiconductor manufacturing
electrical properties of silicon
how these properties can be altered
by chemical and physical processes

Volumetric and Melting Properties

Properties related to the volume of solids and how
the properties are affected by temperature
Includes:
Density
Thermal expansion
Melting point

Part 1: Density
Strength-to-Weight Ratio

Density Defined
Density
Weight per unit volume /

Typical units are g/cm3 (lb/in3)

Determined by atomic number and other factors
Such as atomic radius, and atomic packing
Specific gravity

Density of a material relative to density of water

a ratio with no units

Why Density is Important ( )

Material selection
for a given application
generally not the only property of interest
Strengthtoweight ratio
Tensile strength divided by density /
Comparing materials for structural applications
In aircraft, automobiles, and other products
Where weight and energy are of concern
(

Tensile Strength/Density

DensityExample

Strength-to-Weight Ratio

Part 2: Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion
Density of a material is a function of temperature
In general, density decreases with increasing
temperature
Volume per unit weight increases with increasing
temperature
Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of
temperature on density
Measured by coefficient of thermal expansion

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Change in length per degree of temperature, such as
mm/mm/C (in/in/F) %
Length ratio rather than volume ratio because this
is easier to measure and apply
Change in length for a given temperature change is:

L2 L1 = L1 (T2 T1)
L /L = T
= coefficient of thermal expansion;
L1 and L2 are lengths corresponding
respectively to temperatures T1 and T2

Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing

Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit assemblies

Part is cooled to decrease size to permit insertion into

another part
When part returns to ambient temperature (
, a tightlyfitted assembly is obtained

Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat treatment

and welding due to thermal stresses that develop in
material during these processes
( )

Thermal Stress
Shape Distortion due to non-uniform thermal expansion
Thermal induced stress

Shrink Fit Assembly

Shrink Fit
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HqaldOMR_g
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-HqrwMd1fs

Part 3: Melting Points

Melting Characteristics for Elements

Melting point Tm of a pure element
temperature at which it transforms from solid to
liquid state
Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to
accomplish transformation from solid to liquid

Figure 4.1 Changes in volume per unit weight (1/density) as a function of

temperature for a hypothetical pure metal, alloy, and glass; all
exhibiting similar thermal expansion and melting characteristics
Glass Transition Temp:

Solidus & Liquidus

Melting of Metal Alloys

Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single
melting point
Melting begins at a temperature called the solidus

Melting continues as temperature increases until

converting completely to liquid at a temperature called
the liquidus
Between the two temperatures, the alloy is a mixture of
solid and molten metals

Figure 4.1 Changes in volume per unit weight (1/density) as a function of

temperature for a hypothetical pure metal, alloy, and glass; all
exhibiting similar thermal expansion and melting characteristics
Glass Transition Temp:

Melting of Noncrystalline Materials

In noncrystalline materials (glasses), a gradual
transition from solid to liquid states occurs
The solid material gradually softens as temperature
increases, finally becoming liquid at the melting point
During softening, the material has a consistency of
increasing plasticity (increasingly like a fluid) as it gets
closer to the melting point
Amorphous: non-crystalline

Figure 4.1 Changes in volume per unit weight (1/density) as a function of

temperature for a hypothetical pure metal, alloy, and glass; all exhibiting
similar thermal expansion and melting characteristics

Glass Transition Temp:

Glass Transition Temperature

(Polymers) Tg
T
T > Tg
(Rubbery State)
(Flexible, Soft)

T < Tg
(Glassy State
(Brittle)

Importance of Melting
Metal casting - the metal is melted and then poured into
a mold cavity
Metals with lower melting points are generally easier to
cast
Plastic molding - melting characteristics of polymers are
important in nearly all polymer shaping processes

Sintering of powdered metals - sintering does not melt

the material, but temperatures must approach the melting
point in order to achieve the required bonding of
powders

Part 4:
Specific Heat

Thermal Properties
Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are
thermal properties because temperature determines the
thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the changes
in materials
(
Additional thermal properties:
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
These properties relate to the storage and flow of heat
within a substance

Specific Heat
The quantity of heat energy required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of material by one
degree

To determine the energy to heat a certain weight of

metal to a given elevated temperature:

H = C W (T2 T1)
H/W = C (T)
C = H/(W T) = J/g-C
H = amount of heat energy;
C = specific heat of the material;
W = weight;
(T2 T1) = change in temperature

Specific Heat

Water vs Gold
Specific Heat: Capacity to Store Heat

Specific Heat

Part 5:
Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conduction - transfer of thermal energy within a
material from molecule to molecule by purely thermal motions;
no transfer of mass
Thermal conductivity of a material = capability to transfer heat
through itself by this physical mechanism
Measured by coefficient of thermal conductivity k.
Units: J/s mm C (Btu/in hr F)
Coefficient of thermal conductivity is generally high in metals,
low in ceramics and plastics

Heat Conductivity

Thermal Conductivity

Q
1
k ( A) ( ) ( T )
t
d
Q d 1

k ( )(
) J / s mm C
t A T
(A)
(A)
(d) (d)
(T)
Q/t)

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Conductivity

Heat Conductivity
Heat Conductivity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sdpcjm2vmLY

Thermal Properties in Manufacturing

In some cases, heat is the energy that accomplishes the
process
Examples: heat treating, sintering of powder metals and
ceramics
In other cases, heat is generated as a result of the
process
Examples: cold forming and machining of metals

Part 6:
Mass Diffusion

Mass Diffusion
Movement of atoms or molecules within a material or
across a boundary between two materials in contact
Because of thermal agitation of the atoms in a material
(solid, liquid, or gas), atoms are continuously moving
about
In liquids and gases, where the level of thermal
agitation is high, it is a freeroaming movement
In metals, atomic motion is facilitated by vacancies
and other imperfections in the crystal structure

Figure 4.2 Mass diffusion: (a) model of atoms in two solid blocks
in contact: (1) when two pieces are first brought together, each
has its own compositions; (2) after time, an exchange of atoms
occurs; and (3) eventually, a uniform concentration occurs. The
concentration gradient dc/dx for metal A is plotted in (b).

Mass Diffusion

Mass Diffusion in Manufacturing

Surface hardening treatments based on diffusion
include carburizing and nitriding
( )
Diffusion welding - used to join two components by
pressing them together and allowing diffusion to
occur across boundary to create a permanent bond

Diffusion is also used in electronics manufacturing

to alter the surface chemistry of a semiconductor
chip in very localized regions to create circuit details

Part 6:
Electric Properties

Electrical Properties
Engineering materials exhibit a great variation in their
capability to conduct electricity
Flow of electrical current involves movement of charge
carriers infinitesimally small particles possessing an
electrical charge
In solids, these charge carriers are electrons

In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive and

negative ions

Electrical Properties
Movement of charge carriers is driven by the
presence of electric voltage
And resisted by the inherent characteristics of the
material, such as atomic structure and bonding
between atoms and molecules

Electrical Resistance
Resistance in a uniform section of material (e.g., a
wire) depends on its length L, crosssectional area
A, and resistivity of the material r
where resistivity r has units of m2/m or m
(in.)

l
R
A
A
m2
R
m
l
m

Resistivity
Property that defines a material's capability to resist
current flow
Resistivity is not a constant; it varies, as do so many
other properties, with temperature
For metals, resistivity increases with temperature

Conductivity
Often more convenient to consider a material as
conducting electrical current rather than resisting its
flow
Conductivity of a material is simply the reciprocal of
resistivity

Engineering Materials and

Electrical Properties
Metals are the best conductors of electricity, because of their
metallic bonding

Most ceramics and polymers, whose electrons are tightly

bound by covalent and/or ionic bonding, are poor conductors

Many ceramics and polymers materials are used as

insulators because they possess high resistivities

Semiconductors
A material whose resistivity lies between insulators
and conductors
Most common semiconductor material is silicon,
largely because of its abundance in nature, relative
low cost, and ease of processing
What makes semiconductors unique is the capacity
to significantly alter conductivities in their surface
chemistries in very localized areas to fabricate
integrated circuits

Electrical Properties in Manufacturing

Electric discharge machining - uses electrical energy
in the form of sparks to remove material from
metals
The important welding processes, such as arc
welding and resistance spot welding, use electrical
energy to melt the joint metal
Capacity to alter electrical properties of
semiconductor materials is the basis for
microelectronics manufacturing

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

Arc Welding

Arc Welding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TeBX6cKKHWY

Resistance Spot Welding

Chap 5 DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND

SURFACES
l Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes
l Surface Texture and Integrity
l Surface Effect of Manufacturing Processes

Part 1: Dimension, Tolerance

Dimensions and Tolerances

l In addition to mechanical and physical properties,
other factors that determine the performance of a
manufactured product include:
l Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a component
specified on the part drawing
l Tolerances- allowable variations from the specified
part dimensions that are permitted in manufacturing

Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M1982)

l Dimensions on part drawings represent nominal or
basic sizes of the part and its features

l The dimension indicates the part size desired by the

designer, if the part could be made with no errors
or variations in the fabrication process

Tolerances
l A tolerance is the total amount by which a specific
dimension is permitted to vary. The tolerance is the
difference between the maximum and minimum
limits
l Variations occur in any manufacturing process, which
are manifested as variations in part size

l Tolerances are used to define the limits of the
allowed variation

Bilateral Tolerance
l Variation is permitted in
both positive and negative
directions from the
nominal dimension
l It is possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be
unbalanced; for example,
2.500 +0.010, -0.005

Figure 5.1 Ways to

specify tolerance limits for
a nominal dimension of
2.500: (a) bilateral

Unilateral Tolerance
l Variation from the
specified dimension is
permitted in only one
direction, either positive
or negative, but not both

Figure 5.1 Ways to specify

tolerance limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(b) unilateral

Limit Dimensions
l Permissible variation in
a part feature size,
consisting of the
maximum and
minimum dimensions
allowed

Figure 5.1 Ways to specify tolerance limits
for a nominal dimension of 2.500:
(c) limit dimensions

Surfaces
l Nominal surface - intended surface contour of part,
defined by lines in the engineering drawing
l Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it

Part 2: Importance of
Surface Properties

Why Surfaces are Important

l Aesthetic reasons ( )
l Surfaces affect Safety ( )
l Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics

l Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties

l Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces

l Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts

Surface Technology
l Defining the characteristics of a surface
l Surface texture
l Surface integrity &
l Relationship between manufacturing processes and
characteristics of resulting surface

Part 3:
Surface Texture

Figure 5.2 A magnified crosssection of a typical metallic part surface

Surface Roughness

Surface Texture
l The topography and geometric features of the
surface
l When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth. It has roughness, waviness,
and flaws
l It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it

Surface Integrity
l Surface integrity = surface texture + altered layer

l The altered layer (subsurface) may result from

n work hardening (mechanical energy)
n heating (thermal energy)
n chemical treatment
n electrical energy

Waviness & Roughness

Surface Texture
Deviations from the nominal surface of an object

(waviness)
(roughness)
(lay
pattern)
(flaw)
Figure 5.3 Surface texture features

Surface Roughness Measurement

Surface Roughness of Different Processes

Surface Roughness

Surface Texture (Topography)

Four Elements of Surface Texture

(1) Roughness - small, finely spaced deviations from
nominal surface determined by material characteristics
and process that formed the surface
(2) Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing; they
occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat treatment,
and similar factors
n Roughness is superimposed on waviness
n

(Roughness)
(Waviness)
(Lay pattern)
(Flaw)

(3) Lay - predominant direction or pattern of the surface

texture

(4) Surface Flaws - irregularities that occur on the surface

n cracks, scratches and similar defects in the surface
(
n Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they
also affect surface integrity
n

Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

l Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic based
on roughness deviations
l Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting
smoothness and general quality of a surface
n In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a
synonym for surface roughness
n Both terms are within the scope of surface texture

Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over
a specified surface length

Figure 5.5 Deviations from nominal surface used in

the two definitions of surface roughness

Surface Roughness Equation

l Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on
absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness

Ra

Lm

y
dx
Lm

l where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical

deviation from nominal surface (absolute value); and
Lm = specified distance over which the surface
deviations are measured

An Alternative Surface Roughness Equation

l Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier
to comprehend:
n

yi
Ra
i 1 n
l where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi =
vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by
subscript i; and n = number of deviations included in
Lm

Cutoff Length
l A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness may
get included
l To deal with this problem, a parameter called the cutoff
length is used as a filter to separate waviness from
roughness deviations
l Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface. A
sampling distance shorter than the waviness width
eliminates waviness deviations and only includes
roughness deviations

Figure 5.6 Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings:

(a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Values of Ra are given in microinches;
Units for other measures are given in inches
Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on engineering
drawings

Part 4
Surface Integrity

Surface Integrity
l Surface texture alone does not completely describe a
surface
l There may be metallurgical changes in the altered layer
beneath the surface that can have a significant effect on
a materials mechanical properties
l Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer (altered layer) and the changes in it
that occur during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product

Figure 5.2 A magnified crosssection of a typical metallic part surface

( )
Altered layer+
substrate

texture

Altered layer

Surface Changes Caused by Mechanical Energy

l Residual stresses in subsurface layer
l Cracks microscopic and macroscopic
l Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)

l Residual Stress:
n (residual stress)
n (hot rolling)
n ,
n
n
n (global stress = 0)
n (local stress 0)
n (residual stress)

Surface Changes Caused by

Thermal Energy
l Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain size
changes, phase changes at surface)
l Resolidified material (e.g., welding)
l

Surface Changes Caused by

Chemical Energy
l Chemical contamination
l Corrosion, pitting, and etching

Surface Changes Caused by Electrical Energy

l Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism
(
l Craters resulting from short circuits during certain
electrical processing techniques
Craters

Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

l Some manufacturing processes are inherently more
accurate than others
l Most machining processes are quite accurate, capable
of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or better
(
l Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and tolerances
of 10 to 20 times those used for machined parts must
be specified

Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes

l Shape + Surface (
l Processing cost increases with improvement in
surface finish
l Superior finishes include honing, lapping, polishing,

Summary
l Surface Integrity (
l
l
l Surface texture

Review
l
l
l
l
l

Chap 1
Chap 2
Chap 3
Chap 4
Chap 5

CHAP6: METALS
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Production of Steel
Nonferrous Metals

100

Part 1: AlloyPhase & Grain

101

Alloys ( )
Alloy

a mixture of two or more elements

at least one of which is metallic

(Fe) (C)

102

Phases in a Solid
Phase
Any homogeneous mass of material
All grains have the same crystal lattice structure
(Phase) (FCC)

(Phase)
(lattice structure)
FCC BCC
, ,
(Two Phases in a Solid)

103

2 Phases & 4 Grains

2 Phases
Same Lattice Structure
Binary Phase ( )
FCC + BCC

BCC
FCC

FCC

4 Grains
Same Lattice Structure
Same Orientation

BCC

104

2 Phases vs 14 Grains
4

5
13

6
12

14

11
10

105

Solid Solution ( )

Base Metal (Solvent)( )( )
Dissolved element: (Solute)( )( )

Substitutional ( )
Interstitial ( )

Single phase

106

Two forms of solid solutions (Single phase)

(a)Substitutional solid solution (Cu +Zn) (Brass )
(b)Interstitial solid solution (Fe+C)
107

Solid Solution (Single Phase)

Solid Solution: 2 Types

Intermediate Phases
Dissolved element exceeds solubility limit
A second phase forms in the alloy
( )
(Fe + C) + (Fe3C)
(Fe3C) Cementite)
Intermediate phase
Chemical composition is intermediate
Crystalline structure
Different from those of the pure metals
Fe + C (Fe3C) ( )

110

Single vs Intermediate
Intermediate Phase

(Fe) (C)
(C)
( ): Fe3C

Fe + Fe3C ( )

Single Phase: Solid Solution

A ( )
Fe + C ( )

111

Ferrite, Cementite, Pearlite

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkJ7A2f4R6w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4_xSRQxDxs

112

 Pearlite (Ferrite + Cementite)

: Ferrite (Fe + C)
: Cementite (Fe3C) (ion carbide)

113

Part 2: Cu-Ni Alloy

Phase Diagram

114

Phase Diagrams
Any point in the diagram
Chemical Composition
Temperature
Phases

Under equilibrium conditions

115

Phase diagram for CuNi alloy system

Cu: FCC, Ni: FCC
Cu + Ni Alloy (FCC) (Solution)

116

Phase diagram for CuNi alloy

117

Cu-Ni Alloy System

Below Solidus

Solid solution alloy throughout entire range

(FCC)
No intermediate solid phases ( )
(Single phase, FCC)

A mixture of phases
Solid + Liquid (Binary Phase)
In the region bounded by the solidus and liquidus
( )
118

Determine compositions of liquid and solid phases

119

Segregation Effect (Cu-Ni)

Solidification: 100% Ni 100%Cu

Part 3: Sn-Pb Alloy

Phase Diagram

121

TinLead (Sn-Pb) Alloy System

Sn-Pb system includes two solid phases
-phase Sn in Pb (Pb: FCC)
-phase Pb in Sn ( ) (Sn: BCC)

In-between
A mixture of the two solid phases +
(FCC + BCC)

Phase
(Lattice structure)
(Phase)
FCC ( -phase ), + BCC ( -phase)
122

TinLead (Sn-Pb) Alloy System

123

Figure 6.3 Phase diagram for the SnPb alloy system

FCC Pb
BCC Sn
124

Melting in the SnPb Alloy

Lower temp
Pure Sn melts at 232C ( )
Pure Pb melts at 327C ( )
Sn-Pb alloys melt at lower temperatures

Eutectic Composition

Meet at a composition of 61.9% (Sn)
( Eutectic Point )
(L + )
125

Eutectic Alloy
Eutectic Composition
A particular composition where
Solidus and Liquidus are at the same temperature

Eutectic temperature

Melting point of the eutectic composition

Lowest melting point for an alloy system
derived from Greek word, meaning easily melted
Pb-Sn )
126

127

Eutectic Point (
L S1 + S2
( eutectic ):

128

Eutectic Point

129

Solder Wire

130

Part 4: Fe-C Alloy

Phase Diagram

131

Phase diagram for ironcarbon system ( )

132

Iron has Several Phases

Ferrite: BCC
at room temperature is alpha (), called Ferrite (BCC)

Austenite FCC

At 912C
Ferrite transforms to Gamma (), called Austenite (FCC)
(BCC FCC) (

Delta

Transforms at 1394C to delta () (BCC)

Melt
Pure iron melts at 1539C
133

Solubility Limits of Carbon in Iron

Ferrite phase -iron )
(BCC)
Dissolve only about 0.022% carbon at 723C
( 2)
Austenite -iron
-iron: FCC
Dissolve up to about 2.1% carbon at 1130C
( 2)

134

Austenite
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaJixHqzauU

135

Cementite in the Iron-Carbon System

Two Phase

At room temperature under equilibrium conditions

Ironcarbon alloys form a twophase system
Pearlite = Ferrite + Cementite
= (Fe) (Fe3C)

Cementite (Fe3C)
an intermediate phase ( )
Metallic compound of iron and carbon
Hard and brittle

136

Phase diagram
for ironcarbon
system, up to
about 6% carbon

137

Pearlite vs Cementite

(Pearlite)

Cementite Lattice Structure

The White component is Ferrite (Fe)

The Black component is Cementite (Fe3C)
138

Steel and Cast Iron

Steel
an ironcarbon alloy containing from 0.02% to 2.1% carbon
(2.1%)

Cast iron
an ironcarbon alloy
containing from 2.1% to about 4% or 5% carbon

Alloy Steels
contain other alloying elements besides carbon

139

Eutectoid
(Eutectoid )
S S2 + S3

140

Eutectic vs Eutectoid

Eutectic composition

Fe-C system = 4.3% carbon

L + Fe3C (1130C)
L S1 + S2 (

Eutectoid composition

Fe-C system = 0.77% carbon

+Fe3C ( 723C)
S1 S2 + S3
141

Eutectic vs Eutectoid

Eutectoid
Single solid phase transforms into two other solid phases
1 Solid Phase A Solid Phase + B Solid Phase

143

144

Chap 6-B
Production of Steel

145

Part 1: Iron Making

146

Iron and Steel Production

Iron making
Iron is reduced from its Ores ( )

Steel making
iron is then refined to
obtain desired purity and composition (alloying)

147

Raw Materials Required in Iron-making

Iron ores

Hematite (Fe2O3) magnetite (Fe3O4), siderite (FeCO3)

Limonite (Fe2O3xH2O, where x is typically around 1.5)

contain from 50% to around 70% iron ( )

Scrap iron/steel
widely used as raw materials in iron and steel making

148

Other Raw Materials in Iron-making

Coke
Supplies heat for chemical reactions and produces carbon
monoxide (CO) to reduce iron ore

Limestone
Used as a flux to react with and remove impurities in
molten iron as slag

149

150

Blast Furnace

151

152

Ironmaking in a Blast Furnace

Blast furnace
To produce iron
Ore, coke, and limestone ( )
are dropped into the top of a blast furnace

Hot gases
Forced into the lower part of the chamber
Accomplish combustion and reduction of the iron
153

Blast furnace

154

Blast Furnace

155

Chemical Reactions in Iron-Making

Using hematite as the starting ore:
Fe2O3 + CO 2FeO + CO2

CO2 reacts with coke to form more CO

CO2 + C (coke) 2CO

Final reduction of FeO to iron:

FeO + CO Fe + CO2
156

Iron from the Blast Furnace

Pig Iron
tapped from the blast furnace
over 4% C, plus other impurities:
0.31.3% Si, 0.52.0% Mn, 0.11.0% P, and 0.020.08% S

Further refinement
required for cast iron and steel
A furnace called a cupola is commonly used for converting
pig iron into gray cast iron
For steel, compositions must be more closely controlled and
impurities brought to much lower levels
157

Cupola (Pig Iron Cast Iron)

158

Blast Furnace (known as Cupola)

159

Slag

160

Iron-Making: Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yov7Z0rMyHI

161

Part 2: Steel Making

162

Steel-making
Refining pig iron into steel
Two most important processes
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
Electric furnace

163

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

Air blown up
through the molten pig iron to burn off impurities

BOF uses pure oxygen

Entire cycle time (taptotap time)

takes 45 min

Blast furnace BOF

164

Figure 6.7 Basic oxygen furnace showing BOF vessel

during processing of a heat

165

BOF Converter

166

Figure 6.8 BOF sequence : (1) charging of scrap

and (2) pig iron, (3) blowing, (4) tapping the
molten steel, (5) pouring off the slag

167

168

BOF

(Slag)

169

Electric Arc Furnace

Raw Materials
Scrap iron and scrap steel

Produce
Alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels
Better quality steel

Higher cost per ton, compared to BOF

)
170

Electric Arc

171

Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

172

Electric Arc Furnace

173

Electric Arc Furnace

174

Steel-Making
Blast Furnace (Iron-Making)
BOF/Electric Furnace (Steel Making)
Cast Ingot/Continuous Casting (

175

Cast Ingot mold in steelmaking

176

Continuous Casting
177

Continuous Casting

178

Steel
Carbon
0.02% and 2.11% by weight

Other alloying elements

Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo )

Designation

179

180

181

Steel Making-Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA&list=PLB35
94A0FAFF980DC

182

Part 3: Non-ferrous Material

183

Non-Ferrous Materials

Mg, Cu, Al
Pb, Sn, Zn,
Ni, Ti,
Mo, W
(Bronze)
(Brass)
Molybdenum

184

Light Metals: Aluminum and Magnesium

Al Mg
Light metals

Abundant on earth
Al : on land
Mg: in sea

Not easily extracted

185

Zinc
Low melting point
Attractive as a casting metal
especially die casting

Corrosion protection
Coated onto steel or iron
Galvanized steel: steel coated with Zn

186

Nickel (Ni)
Similar to iron in some respects:
Magnetic

Differences with iron:

Much more corrosion resistant
Alloying element in steel, e.g., stainless steel

187

Titanium
Abundant
1% of earth's crust

Density of Ti
between Al and Fe

Applications

Light weight
Good strengthtoweight ratio

188

Refractory Metals

Most important refractory metals

Molybdenum: Mo ( ) (2623 C)
Tungsten: W ( ) (3422 C)
Other refractory metals
Niobium: Nb ( ) (2477 C)
Tantalum: Ta ( ) (3017 C)

(C) : 3652
(SiO2) : 1650 C
(Si) : 1410
189

Tungsten (W)
Properties
Highest melting point (3422 C)
Stiffest (highest modulus of elasticity)
Hardest of all pure metals

Applications
High operating temperatures
Filament wire in incandescent light bulbs
Electrodes for arc welding

190

Video
Copper Production: BBC

191

Chap 6: Summary
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Production of Steel
Nonferrous Metals

192

Chap 7 Ceramics

193

Part 1
Definition of Ceramics

194

Ceramic Defined
An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or
semimetal) and one or more nonmetals

Metal + Non-metal
TiC ( ), WC , Al2O3,
Semi-metal + Non-metal
SiO2 SiC, cBN (cubic BN)
195

Ceramics Examples
Silica
silicon dioxide (SiO2)
main ingredient in most glass products

Alumina
aluminum oxide (Al2O3
applications from abrasives
to artificial bones

196

197

Part 2
Properties of Ceramics

198

Properties of Ceramic Materials

High hardness ( ( )
Brittle, virtually no ductility
Electrical insulating
Thermal insulating

199

Properties of Ceramic Materials

Chemical stability
High melting temperatures
Translucent (possible)

200

Ceramics is Brittle
Brittle
Metallic bonding allows for slip, and could deform
plastically
Bonding in ceramics is more rigid and does not permit
slip under stress

201

Weaker Tensile Strength

Weaker Tensile Strength (
Ceramics contain imperfections in their crystal
structure
Internal flaws tend to concentrate stresses,
especially tensile, bending, or impact

202

Stronger Compressive Strength

Ceramics are substantially stronger in compression
than in tension
Designers have learned to use ceramic components
so that they are loaded in compression rather than
tension or bending (

203

Strengthen Ceramic Materials

Decrease grain size in polycrystalline ceramic
products
Minimize porosity
Introduce compressive surface stresses

204

Physical Properties of Ceramics

Density
Lighter than metals
Heavier than polymers
> >
Melting temperatures
higher than for most metals
Some ceramics decompose rather than melt

205

Part 3
Ceramic Products

206

Ceramic Products
Clay construction products
bricks, clay pipe, and building tile

Refractory ceramics
furnace walls, crucibles, and molds

Tableware products
pottery, fine china

207

Ceramic Products
Glass (
bottles, glasses, lenses, light bulbs

Glass fibers
reinforced plastics (fiberglass)
fiber optics communications lines

208

Ceramic Products
Abrasives
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
Silicon carbide (SiC)

Cutting tool materials (

Tungsten carbide (WC)
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

209

Ceramic Products
Ceramic insulators
Spark plugs,
Microelectronic chip substrates

Bioceramics
artificial teeth and bones

210

Part 4
Types of Ceramics

211

Traditional Ceramics
Based on mineral silicates ,
silica , and mineral oxides
found in nature
Primary products
Pottery, Tableware, Brick, and Tile (
Natural Abrasives

212

Raw Materials for Traditional Ceramics

Silica (SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Characteristics
Solid crystalline compounds
Formed and mixed in earths crust

213

Clay
Most common clays
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
When mixed with water,
Becomes a plastic substance
Formable and moldable
When heated
to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing)
clay fuses into a dense, strong material

214

Silica (SiO2)
Low in cost
Hard, Chemically stable

Important ingredients in ceramic products

Glass
Tableware
Refractories
Abrasives
215

Alumina (Al2O3)
Abrasive in grinding wheels (
Refractory brick in furnaces

216

Traditional Ceramic Products

Pottery and Tableware

Brick and tile
Refractories
Abrasives

217

New Ceramics
Developed synthetically
Oxides
Carbides
Nitrides
Borides

218

Oxide Ceramics
Alumina (Al2O3)

Produced synthetically
Control of particle size and impurities
strength and toughness improved
Good hot hardness
Low thermal conductivity
Good corrosion resistance

219

Oxide Ceramics

Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)

Electrical insulators
Refractory brick
Cutting tool inserts

220

Carbides

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Tungsten carbide (WC) 2870
Titanium carbide (TiC)
Tantalum carbide (TaC) 3875
Chromium carbide (Cr3C2)

221

Carbides
WC, TiC, and TaC
High hardness and wear resistance
Cutting tools

WC, TiC, and TaC

Need a metallic binder
such as Co or Ni

222

Nitrides
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
Components for gas turbines, rocket engines, and
melting crucibles
Cubic Boron nitride (cBN),
Cutting tool material and coatings
High hardness (close to diamond)

223

cBN: cubic boron nitride

Cubic Boron Nitride (c-BN)

Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN)

224

Glass Products ( - )
Main Composition: SiO2
Applications
Window glass
Containers cups, jars, bottles
Light bulbs
Laboratory glassware glass tubing
Glass fibers insulation, fiber optics
Optical glasses - lenses

225

Ceramics

SiO2, Al2O3

SiC, WC, TaC, TiC, Cr3C2

cBN (BN), Si3N4
226

Part 5
Elements: C, B, Si
Carbon, Boron, Silicon

227

Elements Competitive to Ceramics

(Elements)
Carbon (C) (Graphite and Diamond)
Silicon (Si)
Boron (B)

Not ceramic materials

Compete for applications with ceramics
Have important applications of their own

228

Graphite (
Crystalline C Layers
3000

(electrode)
Bonding between atoms in the layers
Covalent, Strong
Bonding between Parallel layers
van der Waals forces, Weak

229

Graphite Layer Structure

230

Graphite (
Powder form
Lubricant
Fiber form
High strength structural material
Solid form
Refractory

231

Diamond
Carbon
Cubic crystalline structure
Covalent bonding between atoms
Highest in hardness

Applications
Cutting tools
Grinding wheels for machining hard, brittle materia

Not for cutting steels

Fe+C
232

Diamond vs Graphite

233

Silicon Si)
Abundant elements in Earths crust, comprising
26% by weight
Si O
Hard, Brittle, Lightweight, Chemically inactive at
room temperature
Si 1414 C
(Graphite) 3652
(Sand) 1650 C
234

Silicon
SiO2 in glass
Alloying element
Pure silicon
Semiconductor manufacturing
IC produced today are made from silicon
235

Boron
Propterties
Lightweight/Stiff in fiber form
High Melting Point (2076 C)

Application (cBN)
Cubic Boron Nitride for cutting tools


236

cBN: Lattice Structure

237

Boron Fibers
Boron Fiber
Diameter: 0.14 mm
Tensile Strength: 3100 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 393 Gpa (Stiffness)
Metal: Steel
Diameter: 0.13 mm
Tensile Strength: 1000 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 206 GPa

C/B/Glass Fibers

(light weight, high strength)
Strength-to-Weight Ratio
238

Other Fibers
E-Glass Fiber
Diameter: 0.01 mm
Tensile Strength: 3,275 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 73 Gpa (Stiffness)
Carbon Fiber
Diameter: 0.01 mm
Tensile Strength: 2,750 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 240 GPa
Metal: Steel
Diameter: 0.13 mm
Tensile Strength: 1,000 MPa
Elastic Modulus: 206 GPa
239

Part 6
Composite Materials

240

Composite Materials
FRP:
Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer

Polymer
Matrix
Tough

Fiber /
High Strength
High Stiffness
Light weight

241

Guide to Processing Ceramics

Two basic categories:
1. Molten ceramics - Glassworking
(solidification processes) (
2. Particulate ceramics - traditional and new
ceramics (particulate processing)

242

VideoCeramic Processing
Particulate Processing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cEYMuZduYdY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5VmeIunoyKw

Glass Working
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-2WO2izHSQ

243

Chap 8 POLYMERS

Fundamentals of Polymer Technology

Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermosetting Polymers
Elastomers
Guide to the Processing of Polymers

244

Polymer
A compound consisting of longchain
molecules
maybe thousands, even millions of units in a
single polymer molecule (
Poly Many
Meros (reduced to mer) part
Based on carbon, organic chemicals

245

Structure of Polymer

Poly-

Mer-

Polymer
246

Types of Polymers
2 Categories
Plastics
Rubbers

3 Categories:
Thermoplastic polymers (TP,
Thermosetting polymers TS,

Elastomers
247

Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)

Solid materials at room temperature
Viscous liquids when heated to only a few hundred
degrees
Easily shaped into products
Endure heating/cooling cycles repeatedly without
significant degradation

248

Thermosetting Polymers (TS)

Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles as thermoplastics

When initially heated, they soften and flow for molding

Elevated temperatures produce a chemical reaction that

hardens the material into an infusible solid

If reheated, thermosets degrade and char rather than soften

249

Elastomers (rubber)
Elasticity
Extreme elastic extensibility
Some can be stretched by a factor of 10 10
Compared with TS
Share a similar molecular structure TS
Properties quite different

250

Market Shares
TP 70%

TS: 15%
Elastomers: 15%
On a volumetric basis, usage of polymers
exceeds that of metals (

251

Examples of Polymers
TP
Polyethylene (PE ) /
Polyvinylchloride (PVC )

Polypropylene (PP )

Polystyrene (PS )

PE Pellet

LDPE

HDPE

252

PE Polyethylene
(C2H2)n (Polyethylene)
C2H2 (Ethylene)

160

LDPE

HDPE

253

Polyvinylchloride (PVC
)

254

VCM (Vinyl Chloride Monomer)

VCM: Vinyl Chloride Monomer (
)
PVC: Poly-vinyl-chloride (

255

Polypropylene (PP )

256

Polypropylene (PP )
PP (C3H6)n

257

Polystyrene (PS

(C8H8)n
258

Polystyrene (PS

C8H8: Styrene
( )

(C8H8)n

Benzene

259

260

261

Examples of Polymers
Thermosets:
Phenolics

Silicones
Epoxies A B

Elastomers:
Natural rubber
Synthetic rubbers
262

Phenol-formaldehyde Bakelite :
TS

263

Silicone , )
TS

50 200

264

Epoxy ( ): TS
Epoxy( )
A B
AB

PCB

265

Rubber (

266

Why Polymers are Important

Net shape processing
Cost competitive with metals
Require less energy to produce than metals

Translucent/transparent

267

General Properties of Polymers

Low density relative to metals and ceramics
Good strengthtoweight ratios for certain (but not all)
polymers
High corrosion resistance (
Low electrical and thermal conductivity

268

Limitations of Polymers
Low strength relative to metals and ceramics ( )
Low modulus of elasticity (low stiffness)
Service temperatures are limited to only a few hundred
degrees
Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight and other
forms of radiation

269

 Viscoelastic

(not immediate change)

(gradual change) (time lag)

VISCOELASTIC

270

Synthesis of Polymers
Nearly all are synthetic, chemical processing

Polymers are synthesized by joining many

small molecules together into very large
molecules, called macromolecules, that possess
a chainlike structure
(

271

Figure 8.1 Synthesis of polyethylene (PE )

from ethylene (C2H4 ) monomers
(1)n ethylene monomers yields
(2a) polyethylene of chain length n;
(2b) concise notation for depicting the polymer structure
of chain length n
272

Degree of Polymerization
Degree of polymerization (DP)
Polymer length: a statistical distribution
Mean value of polymer length for a batch

Higher DP
increases mechanical strength
increases viscosity in the fluid state, which
makes processing more difficult

273

Molecular Weight (
Molecular weight (MW)
Sum of the molecular weights of mers
n times molecular weight of each repeating unit

n
A statistical distribution
Use average value in a batch

274

Typical Values of DP and MW

Polymer

DP (n)

PE
PVC
Nylon

10,000
1,500
120

MW

300,000
100,000
15,000

275

Linear, Branched, and Cross-linked Polymers

Linear structure
Chain-like structure (TP)

Branched structure
Chain-like but with side branches (TP)

Cross-linked structure
Loosely cross-linked (Elastomer)
Tightly cross-linked (TS)
276

Linear structure (TP)

Figure 8.7 Various structures of polymer molecules:

(a) linear, characteristic of thermoplastics
277

Branched structure (TP)

Figure 8.7 Various structures of polymer molecules: (b) branched

278

Loosely cross-linked (Elastomer)

Elastomer

Figure 8.7 Various structures of polymer molecules:

(c) loosely crosslinked as in an elastomer
279

Tightly cross-linked or network structure

(Thermoset)

Thermoset

Figure 8.7 Various structures of polymer molecules:

(d) tightly cross linked or networked structure as in a thermoset

280

Effect of Branching
TP
linear or branched structures
a mixture of the two

Branches
increase entanglement ( ) among the molecules
makes polymer stronger in solid state
More viscous at a given temperature in the plastic or
liquid state

281

Effect of Cross-Linking
TS
High degree of crosslinking
Hard and Brittle
Elastomers
a low degree of crosslinking
elastic and resilient ( )
Crosslinking
Chemically set
Reaction cannot be reversed
Polymer structure permanently changed
if reheated, it degrades or burns
rather than melt

282

Crystallinity in Polymers
amorphous and crystalline are possible

Tendency to crystallize is much less than for metals or

nonglass ceramics
(Polymer

Degree of crystallinity (the proportion of crystallized

material in the mass) is always less than 100%
100%

283

Figure 8.9 Crystallized regions in a polymer: (a)

long molecules forming crystals randomly mixed
in with the amorphous material; and (b) folded
chain lamella, the typical form of a crystallized 284
region

Observations About Crystallization

Crystallized regions
Regular arrangement
Called crystallites

Twophase system
Randomly mixed with amorphous material
Cystallites interspersed throughout an
amorphous matrix

285

Crystallinity and Properties

As crystallinity is increased in a polymer:
Density increases (
Stiffness, Strength, and Toughness
increases
Heat resistance increases
If the polymer is transparent in the amorphous
state, it becomes opaque when partially
crystallized

286

Low Density vs. High Density PE

Polyethylene type

LDPE

HDPE

Degree of crystallinity

55%

92%

Specific gravity

0.92

0.96

Modulus of elasticity

140 MPa
(20,000 lb/in2)

700 MPa
(100,000 lb/in2)

Melting temperature

115C

135C

(239F)

(275F)
287

Additives
Properties of a polymer can be changed by combining
it with additives
Additives either alter molecular structure

Or add a second phase, in effect transforming the

polymer into a composite material

288

Additives by Function
Fillers to strengthen polymer or reduce cost
Plasticizers to soften polymer and improve flow
Colorants pigments or dyes
Lubricants to reduce friction and improve flow

Flame retardents to reduce flammability of polymer

Ultraviolet light absorbers reduce degradation from
sunlight
289

Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)

TP
Heating/cooling cycle can be repeated multiple times
without degrading the polymer
Linear/Branched macromolecules
Do not crosslink upon heating
TS and elastomer
change chemically when heated
crosslinks their molecules and permanently sets these
polymers

290

Mechanical Properties of TP
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
2-3 orders of magnitude lower than metals/ceramics
Low tensile strength
TS is about 10% of the metal
Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics

Greater ductility on average

1% elongation for PS
500% or more for PP
291

Physical Properties TP
Lower densities
Typical specific gravity for TP are 1.2
Ceramics specific gravity = 2.5
Metals specific gravity = 7.0
Higher coefficient of thermal expansion
5 times the value for metals
10 times the value for ceramics
Much lower melting temperatures
Low Thermal/Electrical conductivities
292

TP Products
TP products
molded and extruded items
fibers, films and sheets

packaging materials

Starting plastic materials

powders or pellets in bags
293

Thermosetting Polymers (TS)

TS polymers
Highly crosslinked, covalentlybonded structure
Chemical reactions are called curing or setting
(
Curing: process of hardening a polymer material

Formed part
Pot handle, electrical switch cover
Becomes one large macromolecule, amorphous
294

Properties of TS
Rigid: modulus of elasticity is 2-3 times greater than TP

Brittle, virtually no ductility

Less soluble than TP in common solvents
Capable of higher service temperatures than TP
Cannot be remelted instead they degrade or burn

295

How Cross-Linking is Done in TS

Polymers?

Three categories:
1. Temperatureactivated systems
2. Catalystactivated systems
3. MixingActivated Systems

Curing
. Accomplished at fabrication plants
. Rather than chemical plants that supply the
starting materials to the fabricator
296

TemperatureActivated
Curing ( is caused by heat supplied during part
shaping operation (e.g., molding)
Starting material is a linear polymer in granular form
supplied by the chemical plant (
As heat is added, the material softens for molding, but
continued heating results in crosslinking
Most common TS systems
The term thermoset" applies best to these polymers
(Curing)

297

CatalystActivated Systems
Crosslinking in these systems occurs
when small amounts of a catalyst are added to the
polymer which is in liquid form

Without the catalyst, the polymer remains stable

Once combined with the catalyst it changes into

solid form
298

MixingActivated

The mixing of two chemicals results in a reaction that

forms a crosslinked solid polymer
Elevated temperatures are sometimes used to accelerate
reactions
Most epoxies are examples of these systems

299

Applications of Epoxy

FR-4 is a grade designation assigned to glassreinforced epoxy laminate sheets, used in printed circuit
boards. "FR" stands for flame retardant
FR-4 is a composite material composed of woven
fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is
flame resistant (self-extinguishing).
300

TS vs. TP
TS plastics
Not as widely used as TP
Processing costs and complications involved in curing
Largest market share
Phenolic resin: 6% of total plastics market
PE: 35% market share
TS Products

Plywood adhesives
Paints, Molded parts
Printed circuit boards PCB
Fiber reinforced plastics
301

Elastomers
Polymers capable of large elastic deformation when
subjected to relatively low stresses

Some can be extended 500% or more and still

return to their original shape 5
Two categories:
Natural rubber - derived from biological plants

Synthetic polymers - produced by polymerization

processes similar to those used for TP and TS
polymers
302

Characteristics of Elastomers

Elastomers consist of longchain molecules that

are crosslinked (like TS) TS)
Elastic properties owing to two features:
1. Molecules are tightly kinked ( ) when
unstretched (
2. Degree of crosslinking is substantially less
than TS
303

Figure 8.12 Model of long elastomer molecules, with

low degree of crosslinking: (a) tightly kinked while
unstretched, and (b) under tensile stress

304

Synthetic Rubbers

Today, the tonnage of synthetic rubbers is more than

three times that of NR
Development of synthetic rubbers was motivated largely
by world wars when NR was difficult to obtain
As with most other polymers, the main raw material for
synthetic rubbers is petroleum

305

Chap 8 POLYMERS

Fundamentals of Polymer Technology

Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermosetting Polymers
Elastomers
Guide to the Processing of Polymers

306

Chap 8-Part 2
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Classification of Composite Materials

Metal Matrix Composites
Ceramic Matrix Composites
Polymer Matrix Composites
Guide to Processing Composite Materials

307

Composite Material Defined

A material system
Two or more physically distinct phases
Aggregate properties
Different from its constituents
Examples:
Cemented carbides (WC Co binder)
Plastic compounds containing fillers
Rubber mixed with carbon black

308

Why Composites are Important

Good Points
High StrengthtoWeight
High StiffnesstoWeight
Good Fatigue properties
High Toughness
Do not Corrode

Possible to achieve combinations of

properties not attainable with metals,
ceramics, or polymers alone
309

Disadvantages of Composite Materials

Anisotropic
Susceptible to attack by chemicals or
solvents
Expensive
Manufacturing methods slow and costly

310

Anisotropic

311

Classification of Composite Materials

Traditional
Concrete
Asphalt

Synthetic
Components produced separately

Combined in a controlled way

To achieve desired structure, properties, and

part geometry
312

Components in a Composite Material

Primary phase
forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is
imbedded (
Secondary phase
Imbedded phase Reinforcing agent
Strengthen the composite
In the form of fibers, particles, or various other
geometries

313

Classification of Composite Materials

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other Cermets

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Al2O3 and SiC imbedded with fibers to improve properties,
especially in high temperature applications
least common

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

Thermosetting resins are widely used in PMCs
Epoxy and polyester with fiber reinforcement,
Phenolic with powders
314

Functions of the Matrix Material

Provides the bulk form of composite material
Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually enclosing and
often concealing it
When a load is applied, matrix shares load with
secondary phase
May deform so that stress is essentially
born by reinforcing agent

315

Reinforcing Phase
Function: Reinforce primary phase
Most common shapes:
Fibers
Particles
Flakes
Infiltrated phase (
Skeletal or porous matrix

Powder metallurgy part

infiltrated with polymer
316

Figure Possible physical shapes of imbedded

phases in composite materials: (a) fiber, (b)
particle, and (c) flake

317

Fibers

Filament form
Significantly stronger than Bulk form

Why
As diameter is reduced, material becomes oriented in the
fiber axis direction
Probability of defects in the structure decreases
significantly

318

Fiber Orientation Three Cases

Onedimensional reinforcement
maximum strength and stiffness obtained in the
direction of fiber
Planar reinforcement
in the form of a 2-D woven fabric
Random or 3D
Isotropic properties

319

Materials for Fibers

Fiber materials
Glass most widely used (
Carbon high elastic modulus
Boron very high elastic modulus
Polymers Kevlar
Ceramics SiC and Al2O3
Most important use of fibers
Polymer composites

Kevlar

Kevlar

320

Particles
Distribution of Particles
Random
Isotropic
Strengthening Mechanism
Depends on particle size

321

The Interface
To operate effectively, the two phases must bond
where they join at the interface

Figure 9.4 Interfaces between phases in a composite material:

(a) direct bonding between primary and secondary phases
322

Interphase
In some cases, a third ingredient must be added to
achieve bonding of primary and secondary phases
Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be
thought of as an adhesive

Fig, Interfaces between phases: (b) addition of a third ingredient

to bond the primary phases and form an interphase

323

Another Interphase
Interphase consisting of a solution of primary and
secondary phases

Formation of an interphase by solution of the

primary and secondary phases at their boundary
324

Properties of Composite Materials

An optimum combination of properties is usually sought, rather
than one particular property

Example: Fuselage and wings of an

aircraft must be lightweight and be strong, stiff, and tough

Several fiberreinforced polymers possess this combination of

properties

325

Properties Determined by 3 Factors

The materials used as component phases in the
composite (
The geometric shapes of the constituents and
resulting structure of the composite system

The manner in which the phases interact with one

another

326

FRP: fiber reinforced polymer

Carbon fiber
reinforced polymer
(

Carbon fiber (

975

327

Rule of Mixture
A
B
0.8A + 0.2 B

Fiber is Stiff but Brittle
Matrix (commonly a Polymer) is Soft but
Ductile

328

(a) Model of a fiberreinforced composite material showing

direction in which elastic modulus is being estimated by the rule
of mixtures
(b) Stressstrain relationships for the composite material and its
constituents. The fiber is stiff but brittle, while the matrix
(commonly a polymer) is soft but ductile.
329

Figure 9.6 Variation in elastic modulus and tensile strength as a

function of direction of measurement relative to longitudinal axis
of carbon fiberreinforced epoxy composite
330

Fibers: Importance of Geometric Shape

Tensile strengths
Fibers are several times greater than bulk-shape

Matrix provides bulk shape

When a load is applied, the lowstrength matrix
deforms and distributes the stress to the
highstrength fibers

331

Other Composite Structures

Laminar composite structure
Sandwich structure
Honeycomb sandwich structure

332

Laminar Composite Structure

Two or more layers bonded together in an integral
piece
Example: plywood in which layers are the same wood,
but grains are oriented differently to increase overall
strength of the laminated piece

333

Sandwich Structure Foam Core

Thick core of low density foam bonded on both
faces to thin sheets of a different material

334

Sandwich Structure Honeycomb Core

335

Other Composite Structures

Automotive tires - consists of multiple layers bonded together

FRPs - multilayered fiberreinforced plastic panels for aircraft,

automobile body panels, boat hulls
Printed circuit boards - layers of reinforced plastic and copper
for electrical conductivity and insulation PCB

336

Metal Matrix Composites

Matrix: Metal
Reinforcing phases
Particles of ceramic (these MMCs are commonly called
cermets)
Cermet: Ceramic Metal
Fibers of various materials: other metals, ceramics, carbon,
and boron

MMC metal matrix composite (

337

Cermets ( )
Definition
Ceramic contained in a metallic matrix
Ceramic often dominates the
mixture, sometimes up to 96% by volume

(96%)

Cemented Carbides most common

Oxidebased Cermets less common
338

Cemented Carbides
Carbide compounds bonded in a Metallic Matrix

Common Cemented Carbides are based on Tungsten Carbide

(WC), Titanium Carbide (TiC), and Chromium Carbide
(Cr3C2) (
Metallic binders: usually cobalt (Co) or nickel (Ni)

Titanium Carbide (TiC)

Ti-Ta-W based
Cemented Carbide

339

Fig: Cemented Carbide, with 85% WC (Ceramic

Phase) and 15% Co (Metallic Phase)
340

Co-based Cemented
Carbide
Co %

Figure 9.9 Typical plot of hardness and transverse

rupture strength as a function of cobalt content

341

Applications of Cemented Carbides

Tungsten carbide cermets (Co binder)
cutting tools
wire drawing dies
rock drilling bits
dies for powder metallurgy
indenters for hardness testers

Drawing Die

Insert

Drill Bit

Indenter

342

Applications of Cemented Carbides

Titanium carbide cermets (Ni binder)
High temperature applications
Torch tips

Torch Tip

Ni binder

343

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Matrix: ceramic
High Stiffness, Hot Hardness, Compressive
Strength; relatively Low Density
Low Toughness and Bulk Tensile Strength,
susceptibility to thermal cracking

CMCs
retain desirable properties of ceramics
compensating for their weaknesses
344

Polymer Matrix Composites

Matrix: Polymer
Commercially most common
Examples:
Plastic molding compounds
Rubber reinforced with Carbon Black
Fiberreinforced polymers (FRPs)

345

FiberReinforced Polymers
Polymer matrix materials:
Usually a thermosetting (TS) plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or Epoxy
Can also be thermoplastic (TP), such as nylons
(polyamides), PS, and PVC
Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as Tires and Conveyor Belts

346

Fibers in PMCs
Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous,
or woven as a fabric
Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon,
and Kevlar 49
Glass (in particular Eglass) is the most common fiber
material in today's FRPs;

Glass Fiber

iPhone-Carbon Fiber

Kevlar 29/49

347

Common FRP Structure

Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar structure,
made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber and
polymer until desired thickness is obtained

By varying fiber orientation among layers, a specified

level of anisotropy in properties can be achieved in
the laminate
Applications: parts of thin crosssection, such as
aircraft wing and fuselage sections, automobile and
truck body panels, and boat hulls
348

FRP Properties
High StrengthtoWeight and ModulustoWeight ratios
Low Specific Gravity - a typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as
much as steel; Strength and Modulus are comparable in fiber
direction 1/5
Good Fatigue strength
Good Corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in
various chemicals
Low Thermal Expansion - for many FRPs, leading to good
dimensional stability
Significant anisotropy in properties

349

FRP Applications
Aerospace much of the structural weight of airplanes and
helicopters consist of advanced FRPs
Sports and recreation
Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for boat hulls
since the 1940s
Fishing rods, tennis rackets, helmets

350

Figure 9.11 Composite materials in the Boeing 757

(courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplane Group)
351

Other Polymer Matrix Composites

Secondary phase
Called fillers when used in molding compounds
Reinforcing fillers
Used to improve mechanical properties
Carbon black in rubber
Extenders
Used to increase bulk
Reduce cost per unit weight
Little or no effect on mechanical properties

352

CHAP 9: FUNDAMENTALS OF
METAL CASTING
Overview of Casting Technology
Heating and Pouring
Solidification and Cooling

353

Part 1: Solidfication Procesesses

Metal, Glass, Polymers

354

Solidification Processes
Starting work material
Liquid
Highly plastic condition ( ) ( )
Created through solidification

Material processed:

Metals ( )
Ceramics, specifically glasses ( )
Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
( ) ( )

355

Figure 10.1 - Classification of solidification processes

356

Part 1: Metal Casting

357

Casting
Molten metal flows
by gravity or other force
into a mold where it solidifies
in the shape of the mold cavity

Casting: the part made in the process

Steps:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

358

Capabilities and Advantages of Casting

Can create complex part geometries
Can create both external and internal shapes

Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape

Can produce very large parts

Some casting methods are suited to mass production

Net shape processing

refers to any manufacturing process which creates an object
in its finished form without the need for finish machining or
other actions
359

Disadvantages of Casting
Different disadvantages for different casting
processes
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and Poor surface finish
for some processes; e.g., sand casting

Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals

Environmental problems
360

Parts Made by Casting

Big parts:
engine blocks
machine frames
railway wheels, church bells, big statues

Small parts:
dental crowns, jewelry,
small statues, and frying pans

All varieties of metals can be cast

Ferrous
nonferrous
361

Overview of Casting Technology

Foundry
factory equipped for making molds
melting and handling molten metal
performing the casting process
cleaning the finished casting

Foundrymen
Workers who perform casting

362

Part 3: Casting
Mold, Pattern, Cavity

363

Mold in Casting
Cavity:
Cavity whose geometry determines part shape

Slightly oversized
Actual size of cavity must be slightly oversized
Allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification

Mold materials
Sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal


364

Figure 10.2 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container
in the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which
the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity
365

Categories of Casting Process

Expendable mold
must be destroyed to remove casting

Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders

Permanent mold
mold can be used many times
made of metal
366

Sand Mold (Expendable)

367

Die Casting (Permanent)

368

Advantages and Disadvantages

Intricate:

Expendable Mold
More intricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes ( )
Part shapes in permanent mold processes are
limited by the need to open mold ( )

High Volume (
Permanent mold processes are more economic
in high production operations
369

Figure 10.2 (b) Sand casting mold

370

Sand Casting Mold Terms

Mold consists of two halves:
Cope = upper half of mold
Drag = bottom half

Mold halves are contained in a box,

called a flask
The two halves separate at the parting line

371

Forming the Mold Cavity

Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern ), which has the shape of the part
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has desired
shape of cast part ( )
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal as it solidifies and cools ( )
Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to
maintain shape ( ) (

372

Part 4: CastingSand Core

373

Cores in the Mold Cavity

External Surface:
mold cavity provides external surfaces of the cast part

Internal surface
determined by a core ( )
placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part

Cores
In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand

374

Sand CoreInternal Shaping

Pipe MakingSand Core

Solid Making
375

Part 5: Casting
Gating System, Risers

376

Gating System
Channel
through which molten metal flows into cavity

Components

a downsprue, through which

metal enters a runner leading to the main cavity
At top of downsprue, a pouring cup is used to
minimize splash and turbulence as metal flows into downsprue

377

Figure 10.2 (b) Sand casting mold

378

Riser
Reservoir
a source of liquid metal in the mold
compensate for shrinkage during solidification

Freeze
must be designed to freeze later than main casting
in order to satisfy its function

379

Riser (Blind vs Open)

380

Heating the Metal

Heating furnaces
heat the metal to molten temperature
sufficient for casting

The heat required is the sum of:

Heat to raise temperature to melting point
Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
Heat to raise molten metal to desired temperature for
pouring

381

Pouring the Molten Metal

Fill cavity
metal must flow into all regions of the mold
before solidifying

Factors that determine success:

Pouring temperature
Pouring rate
Turbulence

382

Part 6: CastingGrain Structure

Pure Elements vs Alloy

383

Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into
solid state
Solidification differs
depending on whether the metal is a pure
element or an alloy

384

A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature

equal to its freezing point (same as melting point)

Figure 10.4 Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

385

Solidification of Pure Metals

Thin Skin: Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin
skin of solid metal is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring ( (
)
Shell: Skin thickness increases to form a shell around
the molten metal as solidification progresses
( )
Freezing Rate: Rate of freezing depends on heat
transfer into mold, as well as thermal properties of the
metal
386

Grain Size

Pure Element

Figure 10.5 Characteristic grain structure in a casting

of a pure metal, showing randomly oriented grains ( )
of small size near the mold wall, and large columnar grains
oriented toward the center ( ) of the casting
387

Most alloys freeze over a temperature range

rather than at a single temperature S

Figure 10.6 (a) Phase diagram for a coppernickel alloy system and
(b) associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni50%Cu composition
during casting
388

Segregation Effect
Figure 10.7 Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting

389

Alloy Solidification
Chemical Composition




Not uniformly distributed

390

Part 6: Casting
Solidfication Time

391

Solidification Time
Solidification takes time
Total solidification time TST = time
required for casting to solidify after pouring
TST depends on size and shape of casting
by relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule


392

n
V
T
S

C
A

Chvorinov's Rule

where TST = total solidification time;

V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent usually taken to have a value = 2;
Cm mold constant

393

Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule

Cm : depends on mold material, thermal properties of
casting metal, and pouring temperature relative to
melting point
Value of Cm : for a given casting operation can be
based on experimental data from previous operations
carried out using same mold material, metal, and
pouring temperature, even though the shape of the
part may be quite different

394

What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us

(High VA ratio)

Riser Design:
Since riser and casting mold constants will be equal
Design the riser to have a larger volumetoarea ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first
This minimizes the effects of shrinkage

395

Figure 10.8 Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during

solidification and cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal
immediately after pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by
liquid contraction during cooling (dimensional reductions
are exaggerated for clarity in sketches)
396

Figure 10.8 (2) reduction in height and formation of

shrinkage cavity caused by solidification shrinkage; (3)
further reduction in height and diameter due to thermal
contraction during cooling of the solid metal (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for clarity in our sketches)

397

(from exterior to interior)

398

Part 7: Casting
Shrinkage Effect

399

Solidification Shrinkage
Shrinkage:
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase
has a higher density than the liquid phase
( )

Volume Reduction:
solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit
weight of metal ( )
400

Shrinkage Allowance
Oversized: Patternmakers account for solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction by making mold
cavity oversized
Allowance: Amount by which mold is made larger
relative to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
Shrink Rules: Casting dimensions are expressed linearly,
so allowances are applied accordingly

401

Wood Pattern

402

Riser
Problems
for regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first

Solution
Design Riser ( )
Molten metal is continually available from risers to prevent
shrinkage voids

403

Directional Solidification
V/A design:
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A
ratios away from riser,
so freezing occurs first in these regions

Chills internal or external heat sinks that

cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the
casting ( )
404

Figure 10.9 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the likely result
if the external chill were not used

405

Riser Design
Riser is waste metal that is separated from the
casting and remelted to make more castings
Waste Minimization: To minimize waste in the
unit operation, it is desirable for the volume of
metal in the riser to be a minimum
V/A Maximization: the geometry of the riser is
normally maximum in the V/A ratio
( ) ( )
406

Review 1

Riser
Chill
Core
Pattern
Mold
Mold Cavity
Shrinkage Allowance
Properties of Mold Materials
Shrinkage Voids
407

Review

Grain Structure
Grain Size Distribution
Outer layer (grain size/shape)
Inner layer (grain size/shape)
Segregation of Alloying Components
Pure Element
Alloy
Polycrystal (many grains)
Single crystal (single grain)
408

CAHP 10 METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting
Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Foundry Practice
Casting Quality
Metals for Casting
Product Design Considerations
409

Two Categories of Metal Casting Processes

Expendable mold processes
Mold is sacrificed to remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make
mold rather than casting itself

Permanent mold processes

mold is made of metal and can be used to make many

castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
410

Overview of Sand Casting

Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium

Parts ranging in size from small to very large

Production quantities from one to millions

1600 C
411

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg for

an air compressor frame
412

Steps in Sand Casting

Pour molten metal into sand mold
Allow metal to solidify
Break up the mold to remove casting
Clean and inspect casting
Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required
to improve metallurgical properties

(Shaping, Properties, Surfacing)
413

Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern
Then separating the mold into two halves and removing
the pattern
The mold must also contain gating and riser system

If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be

included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

414

Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand

casting The steps include not only the casting
operation but also patternmaking and moldmaking

415

The Pattern ( )
A fullsized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting

Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but
it warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer

Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

416

Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern ( )
(b) split pattern ( )
(c) matchplate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

417

Core
Fullscale model of interior surfaces of part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity
and the core to form the castings external and internal surfaces

May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity

during pouring, called chaplets

418

Figure 11.4 Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets

(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity

419

Desirable Mold Properties

Strength to maintain shape and resist erosion

Permeability to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids

in sand
Thermal stability to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
Collapsibility ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting
Reusability can sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds?
420

Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties capacity to endure high
temperatures
Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part

Large grain size is more permeable, to allow escape of gases

during pouring
Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

1600 C

421

Binders Used with Foundry Sands

Sand is held together
by a mixture of water and bonding clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay

Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)

Additives are sometimes

combined with the mixture to
enhance strength and/or permeability

422

Types of Sand Mold

Greensand molds
mixture of sand, clay, and water;
Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring

Drysand mold
organic binders rather than clay
mold is baked to improve strength

Skindried mold
drying mold cavity surface of a greensand mold to a depth
of 10 to 25 mm
using torches or heating lamps
423

Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal
tends to displace the core

Core displacement can cause casting to be defective
Force tending to lift core

Fb = Wm Wc
Fb = buoyancy force
Wm = weight of molten metal displaced
Wc = weight of core
424

Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes

Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Investment Casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

425

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell of sand
Held together by thermosetting resin binder

Developed in Germany during early 1940s

426

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (1) a

matchplate or copeanddrag metal pattern
is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin

427

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (2) box is

inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell428

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (3) box is

repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away
429

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding:

(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern
430

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding:

(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed
431

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Shell Molding
Advantages:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish on casting
Good dimensional accuracy
Machining often not required
Can be mechanized for mass production

Disadvantages:
More expensive
Difficult for small quantities
432

Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder

The term "vacuum" refers to mold making

rather than casting operation itself
Developed in Japan around 1970

433

Vacuum Molding
Advantages:
Easy recovery of the sand, since binders not used

Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning normally

done when binders are used
Since no water is mixed with sand, moisturerelated defects
are absent

Disadvantages:
Slow process
Not readily adaptable to mechanization
434

435

436

437

Expanded Polystyrene Process (

)Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal
is poured into mold ( ) ( )

Other names: lostfoam process, lost pattern

process, evaporativefoam process, and fullmold
process
Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections
438

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process:

pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory
compound
439

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process:

(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern
440

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene ( ) casting process:

(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.
441

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Expanded Polystyrene ( )
Process
Advantages:
Pattern need not be removed from the mold
Simplifies and expedites moldmaking, since two mold
halves (cope and drag) are not required as in a
conventional greensand mold

Disadvantages:
A new pattern is needed for every casting
Economic justification of the process is highly dependent
on cost of producing patterns
442

Applications of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Expanded Polystyrene ( )(
)
Mass production of castings for automobile engines
( )
Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to
Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then

Feed them to the downstream casting operation
443

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal ( )
Investment comes from one of the less familiar
definitions of invest - to cover completely,
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern ( )
It is a precision casting process - capable of
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail

444

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are

produced (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form
a pattern tree
445

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting:

(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory
material (4) the full mold is formed by covering the
coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
446

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold

is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
447

Figure 11.8 Steps in

investment casting:
(6) the mold is preheated
to a high temperature,
which ensures that all
contaminants are
eliminated from the
mold; it also permits
the liquid metal to flow
more easily into the
detailed cavity; the
molten metal is poured;
it solidifies
448

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting:

(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting parts are separated from the sprue
449

Investment Casting
Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast

Close dimensional control and good surface finish

Wax can usually be recovered for reuse ( )
Additional machining is not normally required this is a
net shape process

Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
450

Figure 11 9 A onepiece compressor stator with

108 separate airfoils made by investment casting
451
(courtesy Howmet Corp )

Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of
Paris (gypsum CaSO42H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over
plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set

Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact

with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its
fine details and good surface finish
452

Plaster Mold Casting

Advantages:
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Capability to make thin crosssections in casting

Disadvantages:
Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet moisture
content can cause defects in product
Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to
lower melting point alloys
453

Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic materials that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster

Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast

irons, and other hightemperature alloys
Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar

454

Pattern and Mold

Pattern:
Mold:
Binder

455

Review 1

Expanded Polystyrene Pattern

Vaporized Pattern
Shell Mode
Vacuum Mode
Lost Wax Casting
Investment Casting
Buoyancy (core displacement)
Chaplets

456

Part 2

457

Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every casting
( )
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting ( )
Die casting
Centrifugal casting
458

Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing

Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys

are commonly made of steel or cast iron
Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
459

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting:

(1) mold is preheated and coated
460

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting:

(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed
461

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting:

(3) molten metal is poured into the mold
462

Permanent Mold Casting

Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are
produced

Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point

Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of

the need to open the mold
High cost of mold
463

Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,
and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copperbase alloys, and cast iron

464

Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
465

Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hotchamber machine
2. Coldchamber machine
466

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
( )
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low meltingpoint metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components ( )
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Zn, Sn, Pb, Mg ( )
467

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hotchamber casting:

(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal
flows into the chamber
468

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hotchamber casting:

(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification
469

ColdChamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
( )
High production but not usually as fast as hotchamber
machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
(Al, Mg, Cu) ( )
Advantages of hotchamber process favor its use on low
meltingpoint alloys (zinc, tin, lead) (
470

Figure 11.14 Cycle in coldchamber casting:

(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber
471

Figure 11.14 Cycle in coldchamber casting:

(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification
472

Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel
Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) (good
refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast
iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
473

Die Casting
Advantages:

Economical for large production quantities

Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

Thin sections are possible

Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting

Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points
Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity

474

Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the
mold is rotated at high speed so
centrifugal force distributes molten metal to
outer regions of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
475

True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc
But inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round,
due to radially symmetric forces

476

Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting

477

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys

478

Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation
Molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force

Used for smaller parts

Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

479

Furnaces for Casting Processes

Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
Cupolas
Direct fuelfired furnaces
Crucible furnaces
Electricarc furnaces
Induction furnaces
480

Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping
spout near base
Used only for cast irons, and although other
furnaces are also used, largest tonnage of cast iron
is melted in cupolas
The charge, consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola
481

Direct FuelFired Furnaces

Small openhearth in which charge is heated by natural gas

fuel burners located on side of furnace

Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame

down against charge
At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal

Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copperbase

alloys and aluminum

482

Crucible Furnaces

Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel

mixture

Sometimes called indirect fuelfired furnaces

Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or

hightemperature steel alloy

Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and

alloys of zinc and aluminum

Three types used in foundries: (a) liftout type, (b)

stationary, (c) tilting
483



(Cupola)

( )
Direct Fuel Furnace BOF

Crucible
484

Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces:

(a) liftout crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace

485

ElectricArc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
High power consumption, but electricarc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
Used primarily for melting steel
486

Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

487

Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil
to develop magnetic field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting

Since metal does not contact heating elements,

the environment can be closely controlled, which
results in molten metals of high quality and
purity
488

Figure 11.20 Induction furnace

489

Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
twoman ladle
490

Additional Steps After Solidification

Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment

491

Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, partingline
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part

Hammering, shearing, hacksawing, bandsawing,

abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting
methods are used

492

Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed

Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as
the binder deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either
manually or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving
bonding agent
493

Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: airblasting with coarse sand
grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting, whereas in many permanent mold
processes, this step can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
494

Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
495

Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things
to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting
in quality defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
Defects common to all casting processes

Defects related to sand casting process
496

Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely

filling mold cavity

497

Cold Shut

Two portions of metal flow together but there is a

lack of fusion due to premature freezing

498

Cold Shot
Metal spatters during pouring and solid
globules form and become entrapped in casting

499

Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

500

Sand Blow
Balloonshaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

501

Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

502

Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or sand core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal

503

Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

504

Foundry Inspection Methods

Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws

Dimensional measurements to insure that

tolerances have been met
Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

505

Metals for Casting

Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather
than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
Casting alloys can be classified as:
Ferrous
Nonferrous
506

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

Most important of all casting alloys
Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that
of all other metals combined
Typical pouring temperatures 1400C (2500F),
depending on composition

507

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

Generally considered to be very castable
Pouring temperatures low melting temperature of
aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
Properties:
Light weight
Range of strength properties by heat treatment
Ease of machining

508

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

Highly castable, commonly used in die
casting
Low melting point melting point of zinc
Tm = 419C (786F)
Good fluidity for ease of casting
509

Product Design: Geometric Simplicity

Although casting can be used to produce complex
part geometries, simplifying the part design will
improve castability

Avoiding unnecessary complexities:

Simplifies moldmaking
Reduces the need for cores
Improves the strength of the casting
510

Product Design: Corners

Sharp corners and angles should be
avoided, since they are sources of stress
concentrations and may cause hot tearing
and cracks
Generous fillets should be designed on
inside corners and sharp edges should be
blended
511

Product Design: Draft Guidelines

In expendable mold casting, purpose of draft is to
facilitate removal of pattern from mold (1 for
sand casting)
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in
removal of the part from the mold (2 to 3 for
permanent mold processes)
Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are
used
512

 Minor changes in part design can reduce need for

coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign

513

Product Design Considerations:

Machining Allowances
Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part features

Additional material, called the machining
allowance, must be left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
Typical machining allowances for sand castings
are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)
514

Review 2

Machine allowance
Fluidity
Furnace
Cupola
Crucible
Die Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Cold chamber
Hot Chamber
515

Centrifugal Casting

True Centrifugal Casting

Semi-centrifugal Casting (

Centrifuge Casting

Centrifugal Casting

Sand Mold Casting

Thin Cross-Section Casting

Shell Mode Sand Casting

Vacuum Mode Sand Casting

Curing Process

Curing Process
Thermosetting Polymers
The curing process transforms the
resin into aplasticorrubberby a
cross-linkingprocess.