Metallurgy for the

Non-Metallurgist

Chapter (5)
Steels and Cast Irons

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

STEELS AND CAST IRONS are basically
alloys of iron and various other elements in the
periodic table.
The vast majority of steels and all cast irons
contain carbon as a principal alloying element.

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

As a general definition, steel is an alloy of
iron, carbon (under 2% C), and other alloying
elements that is capable of being hot and/or
cold deformed into various shapes.

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

A cast iron, on the other hand, is an alloy of
iron, carbon (over 2% C), and other elements
and is not normally capable of being hot
and/or cold deformed.
A cast iron is used in its cast form.
Steels and cast irons are the most widely used
and least expensive metallic materials on earth.

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

Iron and steel have been used in the
construction of buildings for centuries. Cast iron
was first developed as early as 200 BC, and it
was produced in significant quantities in the
United States during the late 18th century and
throughout the 19th century.

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

Cast iron has a relatively high carbon content
(more than 1.5%) along with silicon and
sulphur.
As a result, cast iron is hard and brittle, with
limited tensile strength. It is difficult to work,
so it must normally be used in cast assemblies.

5.1 Introduction to Steels and Cast Irons

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron
(Fe) and Carbon (C).
The Fe-C phase diagram is a fairly complex
one, but we will only consider the steel part of
the diagram, up to around 7% Carbon.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

-ferrite - solid solution of C in BCC Fe
Stable form of
iron at room
temperature.
The maximum
solubility of C is
0.022 wt%
Transforms to
FCC -austenite at
912 C

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

-austenite - solid solution of C in FCC Fe
The maximum
solubility of C is
2.14 wt %.
Transforms to
BCC -ferrite at
1395 C
Is not stable
below the eutectic
temperature (727
C) unless cooled
rapidly

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

-ferrite solid solution of C in BCC Fe
The same
structure as ferrite
Stable only at
high T, above 1394
C
Melts at 1538 C

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Fe3C (iron carbide or cementite)
This
intermetallic
compound is
metastable, it
remains as a
compound
indefinitely at room
T, but decomposes
(very slowly, within
several years) into
-Fe and C
(graphite) at 650 -

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Fe3C (iron carbide or cementite)
This
intermetallic
compound is
metastable, it
remains as a
compound
indefinitely at room
T, but decomposes
(very slowly, within
several years) into
-Fe and C
(graphite) at 650 -

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Fe-C liquid solution
C is an interstitial
impurity in Fe. It
forms a solid
solution with , ,
phases of iron.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Fe-C liquid solution (cont.)
Maximum
solubility in BCC ferrite is limited
(max. 0.022 wt% at
727 C) - BCC has
relatively small
interstitial positions.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Fe-C liquid solution (cont.)
Maximum
solubility in FCC
austenite is 2.14 wt
% at 1147 C - FCC
has larger interstitial
positions.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Mechanical properties:
Cementite is very hard and brittle - can
strengthen steels.
Mechanical properties also depend on the
microstructure, that is, how ferrite and
cementite are mixed.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Magnetic properties:
-ferrite is magnetic below 768 C,
austenite is non-magnetic

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Classification, Three types of ferrous alloys:
Iron: less than 0.008 wt % C in ferrite at
room T
Steels: 0.008 - 2.14 wt % C (usually < 1 wt
% ) -ferrite + Fe3C at room T
Cast iron: 2.14 - 6.7 wt % (usually < 4.5 wt %)

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
Eutectic and
eutectoid reactions
are very important
in heat treatment
of steels

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
A eutectic system is a mixture of chemical
compounds or elements that have a single
chemical composition that solidifies at a lower
temperature than any other composition made
up of the same ingredients.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
A eutectic system
This composition is known as the eutectic
composition and the temperature at which it
solidifies is known as the eutectic temperature.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
A eutectic system
On a phase diagram the intersection of the
eutectic temperature and the eutectic
composition gives the eutectic point.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
Eutectoid
When the solution above the transformation
point is solid, rather than liquid, an analogous
eutectoid transformation can occur.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
Eutectoid
For instance, in the iron-carbon system, the
austenite phase can undergo a eutectoid
transformation to produce ferrite and
cementite, often in lamellar structures such as
pearlite and bainite.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C
Eutectoid
This eutectoid point occurs at 727
C (1,341 F) and about 0.76% carbon.

5.2 Iron-carbon phase diagram

Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in FeFe3C

Iron-carbon phase diagram,

showing the eutectoid
transformation between
austenite () and pearlite.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Carbon (C) An essential alloying element in most
steels.
Added to increase solid-solution strength
and hardness as well as to increase
hardenability.
Dissolves in iron to form ferrite and
austenite.
Combines with iron to form a carbide
(cementite-Fe3C). The carbide is a
component of pearlite.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Manganese An essential alloying element in most steels.
(Mn)
Added to increase solid-solution strength and
hardness as well as to increase hardenability.
A weak carbide former (greater than iron).
Counteracts brittleness caused by sulfur (iron
sulfide) through the formation of a manganese
sulfide (MnS). High levels of manganese
produce an austenitic steel with improved wear
and abrasion resistance.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Phosphorus Usually considered an impurity in most
(P)
steels. Can be added to
low-carbon steels to increase strength and
hardness.
Improves machinability of free-machining
steels. Promotes temper embrittlement.
Forms an undesirable iron phosphide
(Fe3P) at high phosphorus levels
(especially in cast irons)

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Sulfur (S)

Function
Usually considered an impurity in steel.
Added to special steels for improved
machinability.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Silicon (Si) An essential alloying element in most steels.
Added to increase solid-solution strength and
hardness as well as to increase hardenability. Is
added to molten steel to remove oxygen
(deoxidize). As a result of deoxidation, can
form silicate stringers (silicon dioxide
inclusions). Does not form a carbide in steels.
Improves oxidation resistance. Added to
special steels to improve electrical and
magnetic properties as well as hardenability.
Increases susceptibility to decarburization.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Nickel (Ni) An essential alloying element in some
steels. Added to increase
solid-solution strength and hardness as
well as to increase
hardenability. Toughens steels, especially
at low temperatures. Does not form
carbide in steel. Renders high-chromium
stainless steels austenitic

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Chromium
(Cr)

Function
An essential alloying element in some
low-alloy steels and all stainless steels.
Added to slightly increase solid-solution
strength and hardness as well as to
increase hardenability.
Increases resistance to corrosion and hightemperature oxidation. A carbide former
(greater than manganese); its carbides
improve wear and abrasion resistance and
provide high-temperature strength.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Lead (Pb)

Function
Insoluble in steel. Added to special leaded
steels for improved machinability.
Environmentally sensitive.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Bismuth
(Bi)

Function
Similar to lead. Added to special steels for
improved Machinability

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Molybdenm An essential alloying element in some low(Mo)
alloy steels and tool steels. Added to increase
solid-solution strength and hardness as well
as to increase hardenability. A strong carbide
former (stronger than chromium). Improves
high-temperature properties, including creep
strength.
Counteracts temper embrittlement. Enhances
corrosion resistance in stainless steels.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Copper
(Cu)

Function
Usually considered an impurity or tramp
element in most steels, because it
promotes hot shortness. Added to some
steels for improved corrosion resistance.
Added in special steels for increased
strength and hardness through heat
treating (aging). Very insoluble in iron at
room temperature and does not form a
carbide.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Cobalt (Co) An essential alloying element in some
steels. Added to increase strength and
hardness. Improves hot hardness. Weak
carbide former. An important element in
some tool steels and heat-resistant steels.
Decreases hardenability.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Tungsten

Function
An essential alloying element in some

(W)

steels. Added to increase solid-solution

strength and hardness as well as to
increase hardenability. Strong carbide
former; the carbides form hard, abrasionresistant particles in tool steels.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element Function
Vanadium An important element in microalloyed steels.
(V)

Added to increase strength and hardness of

steel by grain-size control (grain refinement)
as well as to increase hardenability. Strong
nitride former; also forms a carbide.
Minimizes loss in strength during tempering

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Columbium An important element in microalloyed
(Cb)

steels. Added to increase strength and

Niobium

hardness of steel by grain-size control

(Nb)

(grain refinement) as well as to increase

hardenability. Strong carbide former; also
forms a nitride

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element Function
Aluminum An important alloying element in nitrided
(Al)

steels and deep-drawing sheet steels. Added to

increase strength and hardness of steel by
grain-size control (grain refinement). A
common deoxidizer. Forms undesirable
alumina inclusions (aluminum oxides). A
strong nitride former. Does not form a carbide
in steel

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Titanium
(Ti)

Function
An important element in microalloyed
steels. Added to increase strength and
hardness of steel by grain-size control
(grain refinement). Very strong carbide
and nitride former.
Important element to getter or tie up
nitrogen in steels (protects boron from
nitrogen in boron-treated steels). Also a
strong deoxidizer. Can combine with
sulfur to form titanium sulfides.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element Function
Boron (B) Added to steel to increase hardenability.
Enhances the hardenability characteristics of
other alloying elements.
Added to steel for nuclear reactor applications
because of its high cross section for neutrons

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Nitrogen

Function
Added to some microalloyed steels to

(N)

increase the amount of nitrides required

for strengthening or grain-size control
(e.g., in a vanadium steel)

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Tin (Sn)

Function
An impurity or tramp element in steel.
Promotes temper Embrittlement

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Antimony

Function
An impurity or tramp element in steel.

(Sb)

Promotes temper embrittlement

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Arsenic

Function
An impurity or tramp element in steel.

(As)

Promotes temper Embrittlement.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Oxygen (O) Undesirable in steel. Combines with other
elements (manganese, silicon, aluminum,
titanium, etc.) to form oxide inclusions
that can degrade toughness and fatigue
resistance. Usually minimized in steel by
deoxidation with aluminum and/or silicon
and vacuum degassing.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Hydrogen

Function
Undesirable in steel. If entrapped, can

(H)

cause crack formation (hydrogen flakes,

microcracks, etc.). Usually minimized in
liquid steel by vacuum degassing or slow
cooling after the austenite-to-ferrite
transformation

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Calcium

Function
Added to steel for sulfide shape control

(Ca)

(combines with sulfur to form rounded,

undeformable inclusions). Strong
deoxidizer. Forms calcium oxide and
calcium aluminate inclusions

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Calcium

Function
Added to steel for sulfide shape control

(Ca)

(combines with sulfur to form rounded,

undeformable inclusions). Strong
deoxidizer. Forms calcium oxide and
calcium aluminate inclusions

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.1 Alloying elements
Element
Function
Magnesium Added to liquid cast iron to nucleate
(Mg)

graphite nodules in ductile (nodular) iron

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.2 Grey cast iron
Grey cast iron has carbon in the form of
graphite.
This type of cast iron is inexpensive and has
high compressive strength.
Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this
makes it easily machinable but brittle.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.2 Grey cast iron
Some examples of this type of cast iron are
FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15.
The numbers indicate ultimate tensile strength
in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15% silicon.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.3 White cast iron
In these cast irons carbon is present in the form
of iron carbide (Fe3C) which is hard and brittle.
The presence of iron carbide increases hardness
and makes it difficult to machine.
Consequently these cast irons are abrasion
resistant.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.4 Malleable cast iron
These are white cast irons rendered malleable
by annealing.
These are tougher than grey cast iron and they
can be twisted or bent without fracture.
They have excellent machining properties and
are inexpensive.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.4 Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron are used for making parts
where forging is expensive such as hubs for
wagon wheels, brake supports.
Depending on the method of processing they
may be designated as black heart BM32,
BM30 or white heart WM42, WM35 etc.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.5 Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast iron frequently referred to as
nodular or spheroid graphite iron is a recent
member of the family of cast irons. It contains
spheroid graphite in the as cast condition,
through the addition of nucleating agents such
as cerium or magnesium to the liquid iron.

5.3 Cast iron Types

5.3.5 Ductile cast iron
In fact ductile cast iron provides a wide spectrum
of mechanical properties that can be obtained
either by altering certain processing variables or
through various heat treatments which present
different and better combination of properties for
application with special requirements .

5.4 Steel alloys

This is by far the most important engineering
material and there is an enormous variety of
steel to meet the wide variety of engineering
requirements.

5.4 Steel alloys

Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in
which the carbon content can be less than
1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron
carbide to impart hardness and strength.

5.4 Steel alloys

There are thousands of different steel
compositions currently available around the
world.
To the beginning metallographer, the variety
and terminology may at first be overwhelming.

5.4 Steel alloys

In fact, the way that steels are classified may
be quite confusing even to the seasoned
metallographer and metallurgist.
However, in many cases the steels fall into a
limited number of well-defined classes.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.1 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
The general category of carbon and low-alloy
steels encompasses plain carbon steels, alloy
steels, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels,
and a variety of other low-alloy steels.
Each of these subcategories is described in the
following sections.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.2 Plain Carbon Steels
The properties of plain carbon steel depend
mainly on the carbon percentages and other
alloying elements are not usually present in
more than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1%
Mn etc.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.2 Plain Carbon Steels
There is a large variety of plane carbon steel
and they are designated as C01, C14, C45,
C70 and so on where the number indicates the
carbon percentage.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.2 Plain Carbon Steels
Following categorization of these steels is
sometimes made for convenience:
Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C
Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46%
C
Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.2 Plain Carbon Steels
Detailed properties of these steels may be
found in any standard handbook but in general
higher carbon percentage indicates higher
strength.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.3 Alloy Steels
These are steels in which elements other than
carbon are added in sufficient quantities to
impart desired properties, such as wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or
magnetic properties.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.3 Alloy Steels
Chief alloying elements added are usually:
nickel for strength and toughness,
chromium for hardness and strength,
tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature,
vanadium for tensile strength, manganese for high
strength in hot rolled and heat treated condition,
silicon for high elastic limit,
cobalt for hardness
and molybdenum for extra tensile strength.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.3 Alloy Steels
Some examples of alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60,
30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 37Mn2. Stainless
steel is one such alloy steel that gives good
corrosion resistance.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.3 Alloy Steels
One important type of stainless steel is often
described as 18/8 steel where chromium and
nickel percentages are 18 and 8 respectively. A
typical designation of a stainless steel is
15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon percentage
is 0.15.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.4 High-Alloy Steels
High-alloy steels generally contain more than
8% total alloying elements.
These steels include the corrosion-resistant
(stainless) steels, the heat-resistant steels, and
the wear-resistant steels (tool steels).
The stainless steels and the tool steels fall
under an established classification system.
First the corrosion-resistant steels are
examined.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.4 High-Alloy Steels
The difference in classification of low alloy
and high alloy steels is based on the metal
composition: low alloy steels include a lower
concentration of alloying metals versus high
alloy steels.
The composition affects properties like
strength, ductility, etc.

5.4 Steel alloys

5.4.4 High-Alloy Steels
High alloy steels are used when a large amount
of a particular alloying addition is necessary to
obtain the desired properties, such as extreme
resistance to wear, to oxidation, to corrosion,
or to heat.

End of Article