THE

FUNDAMENTAL
S OF POWER
SYSTEM
PROTECTION
Dr. Mohanad
Halawani
mohanadhalawani@yaho
o.com

Schedule
Why protection is needed
Principles and elements of the
protection system Basic protection
schemes
Digital relay advantages and
enhancements

DISTURBANCES: LIGHT
OR
SEVERE
The power system must maintain acceptable operation
24 hours a day
Voltage and frequency must stay within certain limits

LIGHT (SMALL)
DISTURBANCES

Small disturbances

SEVERE (BIG)
Severe
DISTURBANCES

disturbances

The control system

require a
can handle these
Example: variation in protection system
They can jeopardize
transformer or
the entire power
generator load
system
They cannot be
overcome by a control
system
3

POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
System element protection

Automatic transfer to
Automatic re-closing
alternate power supplies
Operation during severe
disturbances

Automatic synchronization

System protection

TYPICAL BULK POWER

SYSTEM

Generation-typically at 4-35kV
Transmission-typically at 230-765kV
Receives power from transmission system and transforms
into subtransmission level
Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV
Receives power from subtransmission system and
transforms into primary feeder voltage

Distribution network-typically 2.4-69kV

Low voltage (service)-typically 120-600V

PROTECTION
ZONES
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately
protected)
Unit Generator-Tx zone
Transformer zone

Line zone

Motor zone

Transformer zone

Bus zone

~
Generator

Bus zone

Bus zone

XFMR

Bus

Line

Bus

XFMR

Bus

Motor

AIMS OF PROTECTION SYSTEM?

Target Group
Utilities (Management, Technical Management)

Offered Solution
Optimal protection devices for optimum Protection of

Power Distribution System

Competitor Product Comparison

Which offer the best solution (with the best prices, saves money, and

Reduced Lifecycle Costs)

Aims of the protection power system Devices offer the best Solution

for optimum Protection of the Power System, which saves time: Fast
Installation and Commissioning, and Saves the Investment in Future.
Reliability & Availability: Reliable Devices and powerful Analysis Tool

shortened down times.

WHAT INFO IS REQUIRED TO APPLY

PROTECTION
1. One-line diagram of the system or area involved
2. Impedances and connections of power equipment, system
frequency, voltage level and phase sequence
3. Existing schemes
4. Operating procedures and practices affecting protection
5. Importance of protection required and maximum allowed
clearance times
6. System fault studies
7. Maximum load and system swing limits
8. CTs and VTs locations, connections and ratios
9. Future expansion expectance
10. Any special considerations for application.

LIST OF DEVICE NUMBERS AND

ACRONYMS
2 Time delay Starting or Closing
Relay
3 Checking or Interlocking Relay
4 Master Contactor
5 Stopping
6 Starting Circuit Breaker
7 Rate of Change Relay
8 Control Power Disconnecting
Device
9 Reversing Device
10 Unit Sequence Switch
11 Multi-function Device
12 Over-speed Device
13 Synchronous-speed Device
14 Under-speed Device
15 Speed or Frequency, Matching

List of device numbers and acronyms

16 Data Communications Device

17 Shunting or Discharge Switch
18 Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19 Starting to Running Transition Contractor
20 Electrically Operated Valve
21 Distance Relay
22 Equalizer Circuit Breaker
23 Temperature Control Device
24 Volts Per Hertz Relay
25 Synchronizing or Synchronize-Check Device
26 Apparatus Thermal Device
27 Under-voltage Relay
27s - DC under voltage Relay
28 Flame detector
29 Isolating Contactor or Switch
30 AnnunciatorRelay
31 Separate Excitation
32 Directional Power Relay or Reverse Power Relay
33 Position Switch
34 Master Sequence Device
35 Brush-Operating or Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting Device

10

List of device numbers and acronyms

36 Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Devices

37 Undercurrent or Under-power Relay
38 Bearing Protective Device
39 Mechanical Condition Monitor
40 Field (over/under excitation) Relay
41 Field Circuit Breaker
42 Running Circuit Breaker
43 Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44 Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45 DC over voltage Relay
46 Reverse-phase or Phase-Balance Current Relay
47 Phase-Sequence or Phase-Balance Voltage Relay
48 Incomplete Sequence Relay
49 Machine or Transformer, Thermal Relay-OLR
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
50G - Instantaneous Earth Over Current Relay (Neutral CT
Method)
50N - Instantaneous Earth Over Current Relay (Residual
Method)
50BF - Breaker failure
11

List of device numbers and acronyms

51 AC Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

51G - AC Inverse Time Earth Overcurrent Relay (Neutral CT Method)
51N - AC Inverse Time Earth Overcurrent Relay (Residual Method)
52 ACCircuit Breaker
52a - AC Circuit Breaker Position (Contact Open when Breaker Open)
52b - AC Circuit Breaker Position (Contact Closed when Breaker
Open)
53 Exciter or DC Generator Relay
54 Turning Gear Engaging Device
55 Power Factor Relay
56 Field Application Relay
57 Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device
58 Rectification Failure Relay
59 Overvoltage Relay
60 Voltage or Current Balance Relay.
61 Density Switch or Sensor
62 Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63 Pressure Switch
64 Ground Detector Relay
64R -Restricted earth fault
64S - Stator earth fault
12
65 Governor

66 Notching or Jogging Device 67 AC Directional Overcurrent

Relay

67N- Directional Earth Fault relay

68 Blocking Relay
69 Permissive Control Device
70 Rheostat
71 Liquid Level Switch
72 DC Circuit Breaker
73 Load-Resistor Contactor
74 Alarm Relay
75 Position Changing Mechanism
76 DC Overcurrent Relay
77 Telemetering Device
78 Phase-Angle Measuring Relay or "Out-of-Step" Relay
79 AC Reclosing Relay (Auto Reclosing)
80 Flow Switch
81 Frequency Relay
82 DC Reclosing Relay
83 Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay 84 Operating Mechanism
85 Communications, Carrier or Pilot-Wire Relay
86 Lockout Relay/Master Trip 87 Differential Protective Relay
88 Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
89 Line Switch
90 Regulating Device
91 Voltage Directional Relay
92 Voltage and Power Directional Relay
93 Field Changing Contactor
94 Tripping or Trip-Free Relay( trip circuit supervision Relay)
95 For specific applications where other numbers are not suitable
96 Bus-bar Trip Lockout relay
97 For specific applications where other numbers are not suitable
98 For specific applications where other numbers are not suitable
13
99 For specific applications where other numbers are not suitable

List of device numbers and acronyms

AFD Arc Flash Detector
CLK Clock or Timing Source
DDR Dynamic Disturbance Recorder
DFR Digital Fault Recorder
DME Disturbance Monitor Equipment
HIZ High Impedance Fault Detector
HMI Human Machine Interface
HST Historian
LGC Scheme Logic
MET Substation Metering
PDC Phasor Data Concentrator
PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
PQM Power Quality Monitor
RIO Remote Input/Output Device
RTU Remote Terminal Unit/Data
Concentrator
SER Sequence of Events Recorder
TCM Trip Circuit Monitor
LRSS - LOCAL/REMOTE SELECTOR SWITCH
SOTF - Switch On To Fault
14

ONE LINE
DIAGRAM

Non-dimensioned diagram showing how

pieces of electrical
equipment are connected
Simplification of actual system
Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and
other simple graphic
symbols
Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC
conventions
15

ANSI AND IEC

ANSI
American
National
Standards
Institute

IEC
International Electrotechnical
Commission
(IEC; in French: Commission
lectrotechnique internationale
(CEI)) is a non-profit, nongovernmental
internationalstandardsorganizati
on that prepares and publishes
InternationalStandardsfor all
electrical, electronic and related
technologies

16

LINE SYMBOLS
[1]

17

LINE SYMBOLS [2]

18

LINE SYMBOLS [3]

19

LINE SYMBOLS [4]

20

1-LINE
[1]

21

PROTECTION
SYSTEM

A series of
whose
purpose is
devices persons andmain
protect
primary electric
to
equipment from the effects of faults
power

BLACKOUTS
Characteristics
Loss of service in a
large area
or population region
Hazard to human
life May result in
enormous

Main Causes
Overreaction of the
protection system
Bad design of the
protection system
22

SHORT CIRCUITS PRODUCE

HIGH CURRENTS
Three-Phase Line
a
b

Substation
Thousands of
Amps

I
I

Fault

Wire
23

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
THERMAL DAMAGE
t

Damage Curve

Damage
Tim
e

Rated Value

In

I
Imd

Short-Circuit
Current

24

MECHANICAL DAMAGE DURING

SHORT CIRCUITS
Very destructive in busbars,
isolators, supports,
transformers, and machines
Damage is instantaneous
Mechanical
Forces

f1

f2

i1
i2
Rigid Conductors

f1(t) = k i1(t) i2(t)

25

Whenever a fault occurs on a network such that a large

current ows in one or more phases, a shortcircuitis said to
have occurred. te
ta d
s
A short circuit is simply a low resistance
s l an
i
h
t
a
connection between the two conductors
of erm of
ge th cts ts.
supplying electrical power to any circuit.
n
e
n
n
a
This results in excessive current ow in the
ch ds o l eff urre
e
a
power source through the 'short,' and may
Th pen anic uit c
de ech circ
even cause the power source to be
t
m or
destroyed. If a fuse is in the supply circuit,
h
s
it will do its job and blow out, opening the
circuit and stopping the current ow.
What causes a Short Circuit?
A short circuit in the power system is the result of some kind of abnormal
conditions in the system. It may be caused due to internal and or
external effects.
Internal effectsare caused by breakdown of equipment or
transmission lines from deterioration of insulation in a generator,
transformer etc. Such troubles may be due to ageing of insulation.
inadequate design or improper installation.
26

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

EXPOSURE TO EXTERNAL
AGENTS

27

DAMAGE TO MAIN
EQUIPMENT

The Effects of Short-Circuit

When a short-circuit occurs, the current in the system increases to an
abnormally high value while the system voltage decreases to a low value.
1. The heavy current due to short-circuit causes excessive heating which
may result in fire or explosion. Sometimes short-circuit takes the form
of an arc and causes considerable damage to the system. For example,
an arc on a transmission line not cleared quickly will burn the conductor
severely causing it to break, resulting in a long time interruption of the
line.
2. The low voltage created by the fault has a very harmful effect on the
service rendered by the power system. If the voltage remains low for28
even a few seconds, the consumer's motors may be shut down and

THE
FUSE
Fuse

Transformer

29

PROTECTION
SYSTEM
ELEMENTS
Protective relays
Circuit breakers
Current and voltage
transducers
Communications
channels DC
supply system
Control cables
30

THREE-PHASE DIAGRAM OF THE

PROTECTION
TEAMCB
CTs
Protected
Equipment

Control

Relay

VTs

31

HOW PROTECTIVE RELAYS WORK?

32

DC TRIPPING
CIRCUIT
+
SI
DC Station
Battery

Relay

Relay
Contact

SI

52a
52
TC

Red
Lamp

Circuit
Breaker

33

CIRCUIT BREAKERS

34

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Very High Voltage CT

Medium-Voltage CT
35

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

Medium Voltage

High Voltage

Note: Voltage transformers

are also known as potential
transformers
36

TYPICAL CT/VT CIRCUITS

Courtesy of Blackburn, Protective Relay: Principles and Applications

37

Three main tasks of CTs and

VTs
The three main tasks of instrument
transformers are:
1. To transform currents or voltages from a usually
high value to a value easy to handlefor relays
and instruments.
2. To insulate the metering circuit from the primary
high voltage system.
3. To provide possibilities of standardizing the
instruments and relays to a few ratedcurrents
and voltages.
38

CT/VT CIRCUIT VS.

CASING
GROUND
Case

Secondary Circuit

Case ground made at IT location

Secondary circuit ground made at first point
of use
Prevents shock exposure of personnel
Provides current carrying capability for the
ground-fault current
39

SYSTEM GROUNDING
Limits over-voltages
Limits difference in electric potential through local
area conducting objects
Several methods
Ungrounded
Reactance Coil Grounded
High Z Grounded
Low Z Grounded
Solidly Grounded

SYSTEM GROUNDING
1. Ungrounded: There is no
intentional ground applied to the
system-however its grounded
through natural capacitance.
Found in 2.4-15kV systems.

2. Reactance Grounded: Total system

capacitance is cancelled by equal
inductance. This decreases the
current at the fault and limits
voltage across the arc at the fault
to decrease damage.
X0 <= 10 * X1

SYSTEM GROUNDING
3. High Resistance Grounded: Limits
ground fault current to 10A-20A.
Used to limit transient
overvoltages due to arcing
ground faults.
R0 <= X0C/3, X0C is capacitive zero
sequence reactance
4. Low Resistance Grounded: To limit
current to 25-400A
R0 >= 2X0

SYSTEM GROUNDING

5. Solidly Grounded: There is a

connection of transformer or
generator neutral directly to
station ground.
Effectively Grounded: R0 <= X1, X0
<= 3X1, where R is the system
fault resistance

GROUNDING
DIFFERENCES.WHY?
Solidly Grounded
Much ground current (damage)
No neutral voltage shift
Line-ground insulation
Limits step potential issues
Faulted area will clear
Inexpensive relaying

GROUNDING
DIFFERENCES.WHY?
Somewhat Grounded
Manage ground current (manage damage)
Some neutral voltage shift
Faulted area will clear
More expensive than solid, less expensive
then ungrounded

GROUNDING
DIFFERENCES.WHY?
Ungrounded
Very little ground current (less damage)
Big neutral voltage shift
Must insulate line-to-line voltage
May run system while trying to find ground fault
Relay more difficult/costly to detect and locate ground
faults
If you get a second ground fault on adjacent phase,
watch out!

SYSTEM GROUNDING INFLUENCES

GROUND FAULT DETECTION
METHODS
Source
Low/No Z

50

50N

50

50N

50

50N

51

51N

51

51N

51

51N

SYSTEM GROUNDING INFLUENCES

GROUND FAULT DETECTION
METHODS
Source
Med/High Z

50

50

50

51

51

51

50G

50G

50G

51G

51G

51G

BASIC CURRENT CONNECTIONS:

HOW SYSTEM IS GROUNDED
DETERMINES HOW GROUND FAULT IS
DETECTED

Medium/High
Resistance
Ground

Low/No
Resistance
Ground

SECONDARY GROUNDING OF CURRENT

TRANSFORMERS

To prevent the secondary circuits from attaining dangerously high potential

to ground, these circuits have to be grounded. Connect either of the terminal
to ground.
For protective relays, ground the terminal that is nearest to the protected
objects. For meters and instruments, ground the terminal that is nearest to
the consumer.

50

SECONDARY GROUNDING OF VOLTAGE

TRANSFORMERS
To prevent secondary circuits from reaching dangerous potential, the
circuits shall be grounded. Grounding shall be made at only one point on a
voltage transformer secondary circuit or galvanically interconnected
circuits.
A voltage transformer, which on the primary is connected phase to ground,
shall have the secondary grounding at terminal n.
A voltage transformer, with the primary winding connected between two
phases, shall have the secondary circuit, which has a voltage lagging the
other terminal by 120 degrees, grounded. Windings not in use shall be
grounded.

51

SUBSTATIO
N TYPES
Single Supply
Multiple Supply
Mobile Substations for emergencies
Types are defined by number of transformers, buses,
breakers to provide adequate service for application

52

INDUSTRIAL SUBSTATION
ARRANGEMENTS

INDUSTRIAL SUBSTATION
ARRANGEMENTS

UTILITY
UTILITY SUBSTATION
SUBSTATION
ARRANGEMENTS
ARRANGEMENTS

Single Bus, 1 Tx, Dual supply

Single Bus, 2 Tx, Dual

Supply

2-sections Bus with HS Tie-Breaker,

2 Tx, Dual Supply

UTILITY
UTILITY SUBSTATION
SUBSTATION
ARRANGEMENTS
ARRANGEMENTS
Bus
1

Bus 2

Breaker-and-a-half allows reduction of

equipment cost by using 3 breakers for
each 2 circuits. For load transfer and
operation is simple, but relaying is
complex as middle breaker is responsible
to both circuits

Ring bus advantage that one

breaker per circuit. Also each
outgoing circuit (Tx) has 2 sources
of supply. Any breaker can be taken
from service without disrupting
others.

UTILITY
UTILITY SUBSTATION
SUBSTATION
ARRANGEMENTS
ARRANGEMENTS
Main bus
Aux. bus
Main
Reserve
Transfer

Tie
breaker

Bus 1

Bus 2

Double Bus: Upper Main and

Transfer, bottom Double Main bus

Main-Reserved and Transfer

Bus: Allows maintenance of any
bus and any breaker

SWITCHGEAR DEFINED
Assemblies containing electrical switching,
protection,
metering and management devices
Used in three-phase, high-power industrial,
commercial and utility applications
Covers a variety of actual uses, including
motor control, distribution panels and
outdoor switchyards
The term "switchgear" is plural, even when
referring to a
single switchgear assembly (never say,
58
"switchgears")

PROTECTIVE RELAYS

59

EXAMPLES OF RELAY
PANELS

MicroprocessorBased Relay
Old Electromechanical

60

HOW DO RELAYS DETECT

FAULTS?

When a faul takes place,

t
frequencway.
and For example:
other
peculiar
Current suddenly increases
y,
electrical

the current,
voltage,
variables
behave in
a

Voltage suddenly decreases

Relays can measure the currents and the

voltages and
detect that there is an
overcurrent, or an undervoltage, or
a
combination of both
Many other detection principles determine
the design of
61
protective relays

MAIN PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
Reliabilit
y

1. Dependabil
2. Securi
ity
ty
ip when it should
Dont trip when it shouldnt
1. Syste
m
stabilit
y
2. Equipme
nt
damage

Selectivi
ty

Trip the minimal

amount to clear t
fault or abnormal
operating conditio

Speed

Usually the faster the

better in terms of
minimizing equipment
damage and
maintaining system
integrity

3. Power
qualit
y

Sensitivi
ty
1. Highimpedan
ce faults

2. Dispers
ed
generati
on
62

ART
ART &
& SCIENCE
SCIENCE OF
OF
PROTECTION
PROTECTION
Selection of protective relays requires compromises:

Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum

equipment cost

High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to

maximum load currents

High-speed fault clearance with correct selectivity

Selectivity in isolating small faulty area

Ability to operate correctly under all predictable

power system conditions

ART
ART &
& SCIENCE
SCIENCE OF
OF
PROTECTION
PROTECTION
Cost of protective relays should be balanced
against risks involved if protection is not
sufficient and not enough redundancy.
Primary objectives is to have faulted zones
primary protection operate first, but if there
are protective relays failures, some form of
backup protection is provided.
Backup protection is local (if local primary
protection fails to clear fault) and remote (if
remote protection fails to operate to clear
fault)

PRIMARY
PRIMARY EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT &
&
COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS
Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level
Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current
to isolate faulted equipment
Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other
phases
Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent
isolation of primary equipment for maintenance purposes
and route power flow over certain buses.
Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same
source of power (transformer).

PRIMARY
PRIMARY EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT &
&
COMPONENTS
COMPONENTS
Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely
Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden
overvoltage (lightning strike).
Switchgear integrated components to switch, protect,
meter and control power flow
Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for
charge current (shunt)
VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and
supply scaled down values to P&C, metering, SCADA, etc.
Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Overcurrent
Uses current to determine
magnitude of fault
Simple
May employ definite time or inverse time
curves
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination
stacks)
Inexpensive
May use various polarizing voltages or ground
current for directionality
Communication aided schemes make more
selective

INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT
PROTECTION (IOC) & DEFINITE TIME
OVERCURRENT

Relay closest to fault

operates first
Relays closer to source
operate slower
Time between operating
for same current is called
CTI (Clearing Time
Interval)

CTI

CTI
50
+2

Distribution
Substation

50
+2

(TOC) COORDINATION
Relay closest to fault
operates first
Relays closer to source
operate slower
Time between operating
for same current is called
CTI

CTI

Distribution
Substation

Time Overcurrent Protection (TOC)

Selection of the
curves uses what is
termed as a time
multiplier or time
dial to effectively
shift the curve up or
down on the time axis
Operate region lies
above selected curve,
while no-operate
region lies below it
Inverse curves can
approximate fuse
curve shapes

Time Overcurrent Protection

(51, 51N, 51G)

Multiples of pickup

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Differential
current in = current out
Simple
Very fast
Very defined clearing area
Expensive
Practical distance limitations
Line differential systems overcome this using
digital communications

DIFFERENTIAL

1 pu
IP

CT-X

IP

CT-Y

IS

IS

Relay
IR-X

IR-Y

+1
Current, pu

1 + (-1) = 0
0

-1
DIFF CURRENT

Note CT
polarity dots
This is a
throughcurrent
representati
on
Perfect
waveforms,
no
saturation

2 pu

DIFFERENTIAL

2 pu

Fault

IP

CT-X

IP

CT-Y

X
IS

IS

Note CT polarity dots

This is an internal fault
representation

Relay
IR-X

IR-Y

Perfect waveforms, no
saturation

+2
Current, pu

2 + (+2) = 4
0

-2
DIFF CURRENT

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Voltage
Uses voltage to infer fault or
abnormal condition
May employ definite time or inverse
time curves
May also be used for undervoltage
load shedding
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination
stacks)
Inexpensive

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Frequency
Uses frequency of voltage to detect
power balance condition
May employ definite time or inverse
time curves
Used for load shedding & machinery
under/overspeed protection
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed can be expensive

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Power
Uses voltage and current to
determine power flow magnitude
and direction
Typically definite time
Complex
May be slow
Accuracy important for many applications
Can be expensive

TYPES OF PROTECTION
Distance (Impedance)
Uses voltage and current to determine
impedance of fault
Set on impedance [R-X] plane
Uses definite time
Impedance related to distance from relay
Complicated
Fast
Somewhat defined clearing area with
reasonable accuracy
Expensive
Communication aided schemes make more
selective

IMPEDANCE

ZL

Relay in Zone 1 operates first

Time between Zones is called
CTI
R

ZB

T2
ZA

T1

21

21

A
Source

REQUIRD BENEFITS
Saves Money
Saves Time
Saves Costs
Setting of
standards

One Device for all Tasks at Feeder Level

Fast Installation and
Commissioning
Reduced Lifecycle Costs
Saves your Investment in Future

Reliability &
Availability

Reliable Devices and

powerful Analysis Tool shortened down times

PRIMARY PROTECTION

84

PRIMARY PROTECTION
ZONE OVERLAPPING
Protection
Zone A
52
To Zone A
Relays

Protection
Zone B
To Zone B
Relays

Protection
Zone A
52
To Zone A
Relays

Protection
Zone B
To Zone B
Relays
85

ZONE
ZONE OVERLAP
1.

Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the key source for

protective relays.

2.

In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit breaker itself,

which means it can not be cleared until adjacent breakers (local or
remote) are opened.

Relay Zone A

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Relay Zone A

Zone B

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Zone B

CTs are located at both sides of

CB-fault between CTs is cleared from both

CTs are located at one side of

CB-fault between CTs is sensed by both

remote sides

relays, remote right side operate only.

86

BACKUP
PROTECTIO
N
C

Breaker 5
Fails
D

11

12

T
B

10

87

BALANCED VS.
I
UNBALANCED
CONDITIONS
I
a

Ic

Ia

Balanced System I b

Unbalanced System

Typical Short-Circuit Type

Single-PhaseDistribution
70
Ground: Phase80%
Phase-Ground:
Phase-Phase:

17
10%

Three-Phase:

108%
32%

Ib

88

DECOMPOSITION OF AN
UNBALANCED SYSTEM
Ia
Ic
Ib
I a1
Ic1

I b2

I a0
I b0
I c0

I b1
PositiveSequence

Balanced

Ia
2

Ic
Negative-Sequence
2
Balanced

89

CONTRIBUTION TO FAULTS

90

FAULT TYPES
(SHUNT)

B
Z

Short Circuit Calculation

Fault Types Single Phase to
Ground

A
G
C

A
G

C
Z

Short Circuit Calculations

Fault Types Line to
Line

B
Z

Short Circuit Calculations

Fault Types Three Phase

91

AC & DC CURRENT
COMPONENTS OF FAULT
CURRENT

VARIATION OF CURRENT WITH

TIME DURING A FAULT

VARIATION OF
GENERATOR
REACTANCE DURING A

92

USEFUL CONVERSIONS

93

PER UNIT SYSTEM

Establish two base
quantities:
Standard

practice is to

define
Base power 3 phase
Base voltage line to
line
Other

quantities

derived with basic

power equations

94

SHORT CIRCUIT
CALCULATIONS
PER UNIT SYSTEM
Per Unit Value
=

Vp
u

Ipu
Zp
u

=
=
=

Vactu

Actual
Quantity
Base
Quantity

al

Vbase
Iactua
lIbas
Zeactu
Z
albas

bas
e

MVAbase x
=1000
3 x kV L-L

kV

base 2

MVAbase

base

Zpu
=Z 2

L-L base

pu1

kV
2 kV base1 x
base
2

95

MVAbase

FAULT INTERRUPTION AND

ARCING

96

POWER LINE PROTECTION

PRINCIPLES

Overcurrent (50, 51, 50N, 51N)

Directional Overcurrent (67,
67N)
Distance
(21, 21N)
Differential
(87)

Operation
Relay
Time

I
Radial Line

Fault
APPLICATION OF
INVERSE-TYPE RELAYS

Load

97

INVERSE-TIME RELAY
COORDINATION
I

Distance
t

Relay

TDistance

Operation
T
ime
I
Radial Line

Fault

Load

98

DIRECTIONAL
OVERCURRENT
BASIC
PROTECTION
PRINCIPL
E

F2
Relay

Reverse Fault (F2)

1
Forward Fault (F1)

I SETTING

Relay operates when the following condition holds:

I FA U LT

E
Z S 1 (0.8)Z
L1

Ia

I SETTING

As changes, the relays reach will change, since

setting is fixed
I FAULT ( LIMIT )

E
(0.8)Z L1
Z S 1

99

DISTANCE
RELAY
PRINCIPLE

Ia , Ib ,
Ic
Va,V b,V c

2
1

Three-Phase
Solid Fault

Radial
Line

Suppose Relay Is Designed to Operate When:

| Va | (0.8) | Z L 1 || I a |
X

Plain Impedance Relay

Operation Zone
Radius Zr1

Z Zr1
Zr1

R2 X 2 Z 2

r1

100

DIRECTIONALIT
Y
1

F1
2

F2
RELAY 3
Operation Zone

X
F1
R

F2
Nonselective Relay
Operation
F1

F2
1

RELAY 3
Operation Zone

F2

Operates when:

Directional Impedance
Relay Characteristic
R

V I Z M cos MT
Z Z M cos MT

F1

The Relay Will

Not Operate
for This Fault

ZM
Z

MT

101

THREE-ZONE
DISTANCE
PROTECTION

Zone 3

TIME

Zone 2
Zone 1
1

Time
Zone 1 Is Instantaneous

C
B

R
D

102

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Current
and voltage information
SUMMARY
Phase elements: more sensitive than
67 elements Ground elements: less
sensitive than 67N elements
Application:
looped and parallel lines
L
IL

T
Relays

Communications
Channel

Exchange of logic information

on relay status

IR

R
Relays

103

PERMISSIVE OVERREACHING
TRANSFER
TRIP
Bus A
Bus B
1

FWD
FWD
Bus A
1

RVS

Bus B

FWD
FWD

RVS

104

DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
PRINCIPLE
Balanced CT Ratio

CT

Protected
Equipment

50

CT
External
Fault

IDIF = 0

No Relay Operation if CTs Are Considered Ideal

CTR

CTR
Protected
Equipment
Inter
nal
Faul
t
50

IDIF > ISETTING

105
Relay Operates

PROBLEM OF UNEQUAL CT
PERFORMANCE
CT

CT

Protected
Equipment

50

IDIF 0

E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l
Fault

False differential current can occur if a

CT saturates during a through-fault
Use some measure of through-current to
desensitize the
relay when high currents are present

106

POSSIBLE SCHEME
PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION PRINCIPLE
CTR

SP

RP

Protected
Equipment

CTR

R
Relay
(87)

Compares:

I OP

k
I

IS IR
RT

| IS | | IR
2

107

DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
APPLICATIONS
Bus protection
Transformer
protection
Generator
protection Line
protection
Large motor
protection Reactor
protection
Capacitor bank

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
SUMMARY
The overcurrent differential scheme is simple and economical, but it
does not respond well to unequal current transformer performance
The percentage differential scheme responds better to CT saturation
Percentage differential protection can be analyzed in
the relay and the alpha plane
Differential protection is the best alternative
selectivity/speed with present technology

MULTIPLE INPUT
DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES
EXAMPLES
Differential Protection Zone
SP

RP

T
I1
I4

I2

I3

Bus Differential: Several Inputs

OP

Three-Winding Transformer
Differential: Three Inputs
71
110
110

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL
RELAYS
Multifunctional

Compatibility with
digital integrated
systems

Low maintenance
(self-supervision)

Highly sensitive,
secure, and
selective

Adaptive

Highly reliable
(self-supervision)

Reduced burden
on
CTs and VTs

Programmable
Versatile

Low Cost

111

A GOOD DAY IN SYSTEM

PROTECTION
CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays
Relays sense current and voltage and declare fault
Relays send signals through control circuits to
circuit breakers
Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip

A BAD DAY IN SYSTEM

PROTECTION
CTs or VTs are shorted, opened, or their wiring is
Relays do not declare fault due to setting errors,
faulty relay, CT
saturation
Control wires cut or batteries dead so no signal is 112

PERFORMANCE
Correct and desired: 92.2%
STATISTICS
Correct but undesired: 5.3%
Incorrect:
2.1% Fail to
trip: 0.4%

THE
FUTUR
E
Improvements
in computerbased

113