BIODEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS
Hydrocarbons, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Pesticides, Plastics, Dyes
Heavy Metals, Radionuclides
HCs, PAHs
Dyes, PCBs
Pesticides
Plastics, Metals
HYDROCARBONS
SATURATES:
(a) Aliphatic/Paraffins:
(b) Cyclic/Naphthenes:
Cyclopentane
Methylcyclohexane
CH3
CH3
Methylcyclopentane
Methylcyclohexane
ASPHALTENES:
Benzaldehyde
(Mono-) AROMATICS:
RESINS:
Benzoate
PESTICIDES
ORGANOCHLORINES:
ORGANOPHOSPHOROUS:
PYRETHRINS/PYRETHROIDS:
CARBAMATES:
Toxicity:
Reproductive disabilities in animals and human
Nervous system and liver damage
Hepatitis, skin diseases and endocrine disrupters
Carcinogenic and allow bioaccumulation
PLASTICS
Biodegradable:
Non-biodegradable:
petroleum-based
petroleum-based
Polycaprolctone (PCL)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyethylene
succinate (PES)
biomass-based
biomass-based
Polyethylene (PE)
Nylon 11
Starch
Acetyl cellulose
(AcC)
DYES
TRIPHENYLMETHANE:
AZO:
Congo Red
Methyl Orange
Bismark Brown Y
Brilliant Green
Allura
Red
Sunset
Yellow
FCF
Methyl
Violet
Oil Red O
PHENOXAZINE:
PHENOTHIAZINE:
XANTHENE:
Giemsa Stain
Brilliant Cresyl Blue
Darrow Red
Erythrosin
Methylene Violet
Methylene Blue
Eosin Y
Rose Bengal
Rhodamine 123
OTHER CLASSES:
Phenazine, Cyanine
Phenanthridine
Acridine, Coumarin
Anthraquinone
Quinoline, Oxonol
Tetrazolium salt
Benzofuran, Indole
Benzodiazole, Styryl
Nitro, Nitroso, Indigo
Diphenylmethane
Heterocycle, etc.
HEAVY METALS
RADIONUCLIDES
BACTERIAL DEGRADATION
for Hydrocarbons, PAHs, PCBs, Pesticides, Plastics, Dyes
Heavy Metals, and Radionuclides
CO2
H2O
Hydrocarbon-degrading Bacteria
Hydrocarbon
s
Petroleum
hydrocarbons
Bacteria
PAH-degrading Bacteria
PAHs
PAHs
PAHs,
naphthalene,
phenanthrene,
pyrene
Naphthalene
Phenanthrene
Bacteria
Rhodococcus, Corynebacterium,
Achromobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes
odorans, Sphingomonas paucimobilis,
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Nocardia,
Mycobacterium flavescens, Burkholderia
cepacia, Arthrobacter, Xanthomonas
Marinobacter vinifirmus, M.alkaliphilus,
Stappia aggregate, Pseudoalteromonas
ganghwensis, Thalassospira lucentensis,
Kaistia adipata
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhodococcus
Marinobacter, Pseudoalteromonas,
Cycloclasticus, Marinomonas,
Halomonas, Brevibacterium, Vibrio,
Pseudomonas migulae, Sphingomonas
yanoikuyae
Phenanthrene,
Exiguobacterium, Shewanella,
bromodeoxyurid Methylomonas, Pseudomonas,
References
Mrozik,
2003; Kelley,
1990;
Bamforth &
Singleton,
2005
Cui et al.,
2008
Bamforth,
2005
Melcher,
2002;
Samanta,
1999;
Haritash,
2009
Edlund, 2008
PCB-degrading Bacteria
PCBs
Bacteria
References
PCBs
Seeger,
Unterman,
Furukawa,
Bedard,
Abramowicz,
Petric, Abraham
Aroclor 1242
Clark, Sierra,
Brunner
Aroclor 1260
Dehalococcoides, Thermotogales,
Cytophagales
Tracey, Watts
Kaneclor
Seeger,
Furukawa
Biphenyl,
Chlorobiphen
yl
Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes,
Micrococcus, Achromobacter,
Acinetobacter, Arthrobacter, Nocardia,
Alcaligenes, Burkholderia xenovorans,
Bacillus brevis, Ralstonia eutrophus
Furukawa,
Ahmed,
Benvinakatti,
Focht,
Mondello,
Pesticide-degrading Bacteria
Pesticides
Glyphosate
Bacteria
Plastic-degrading Bacteria
Plastics
Polyethylene
(PE)
Bacteria
Dye-degrading Bacteria
Bacteria
Aeromonas
hydrophila
Dyes
Crystal violet, Basic fuchsine, Brilliant green, Great red,
Malachite green, Acid amaranth, Reactive red, Reactive
brilliant blue
Citrobacter
Crystal violet, Gentian violet, Methyl red, Congo red,
Malachite green, Brilliant green, Basic fuchsine
Enterobacter
Reactive black, Reactive red, Acid yellow, Acid orange,
cloacae
Disperse yellow
Pseudomonas
Crystal violet, Reactive red, Reactive orange, Reactive
sp, P. putida, P.
blue, Direct red, Direct orange, Acid yellow, Acid blue,
aeruginosa, P.
Acid black, Acid orange, Blue RR, Black B, Navy blue,
fluorescence, P.
Disperse yellow, Acid red, Malachite green, Fast green,
nitroreducens
Orange II, Reactive black, Acid orange, Methyl red
Morganella
Acid yellow, Acid orange, Reactive orange, Direct red,
Acid blue
Shewanella
Crystal violet, Reactive black, Direct red, Acid red,
Disperse orange
Bacillus sp, B.
Navy blue, Red RR, Yellow RR, Remazol black B, Acid
subtilis
red, Indigo blue
Clostridium
Reactive
red, Reactive
black,
yellow,
Ref: Ali, 2010; Barragn
et al., 2007;
Shah, 2013,
2014;Reactive
Bagewadi,
2011 Indigo
Metal-degrading Bacteria
Heavy
metals
As, Cd, Cu,
Co, Zn
Cu, Zn
Bacteria
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans
Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
References
White, 1998
Philip,
Gunasekaran
Cd
Alcaligenes, Psedomonas, Moraxella,
Springael,
Bacillus cereus
Gazs
Ag, Hg
P. aeruginosa, Citrobacter freundii, C.
Lima e Silva,
youngae, Serratia, Klebsiella pneumoniae, 2012
Enterobacter
agglomerans, Chryseobacterium
Ag
P. stutzeri, Streptomyces noursei,
Lima e Silva,
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia,
2012;
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Acinetobacter
Mattuschka,
Gazs
Hg(II)
Alcaligenes faecalis, Bacillus pumilus, P.
Jaysankar,
aeruginosa, Brevibacterium iodinum,
2008; Brim,
Deinococcus radiodurans
2000
Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis
Beveridge,
Radionuclide-degrading Bacteria
Radionuc
lide
Bacteria
Technetiu
E. coli, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, D. fructosovorans, D.
m, 99Tc(VII) vulgaris, Thiobacillus ferroxidans, T. thiooxidans, Geobacter
sulfurreducens, G. metallireducens
Neptuniu
Shewanella putrefaciens, Citrobacter, Pseudomonas
m,
fluorescens, P. aeruginosa, Micrococcus luteus, Streptomyces
237
Np(V)
viridochromogenes
Plutonium, Microbacterium flavescens, Bacillus sphaericus, B. subtilis, B.
239
Pu,
circulans, B. polymyxa, E. coli, Shewanella oneidensis, S. alga,
240
Pu,
G. metallireducens, Clostridium, Aeromonas hydrophila
Pu(V),
Pu(VI)
Cesium,
Rhodococcus erythropolis, E. coli, P. fluorescens, P. aeruginosa,
137
Cs
Deinococcus radiodurans, Arthrobacter, Nocardia
Thorium,
P. aeruginosa, Mycobacterium smegmatis
Th
Uranium,
Arthrobacter, Acinetobacter, Anaeromyxobacter, Bacillus,
235
U(VI)
Citrobacter, Geothrix, Cellulomonas, Clostridium, Deinococcus,
Desulfovibrio, Desulfosporosinus, Desulfitobacterium, E. coli,
Ref: Lloyd, 2005;
Newsome,Pseudomonas,
2014; Williams, 2013;
www.biorad.igib.res.in
Geobacter,
Paenibacillus,
Ralstonia, Rahnella,
Streptococcus
Bacillus
Corynebacterium
Staphylococcus
Shigella
Alcaligenes faecalis
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Escherichia coli
Acinetobacter
Actinomycetes
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Enterobacter cloacae
Mycobacterium
Serratia marcescens
Enterococcus
Aeromonas hydrophila
Ralstonia
Achromobacter
Shewanella
Providencia
paradoxus
Variovorax
Burkholderia
Streptomyces
Rhodococcus
Clostridia
Deinococcus radiodurans
Proteus
Bacteria
Fungi
Algae
Protozoa
Microorganisms
References
Hydrocarbo
ns
Pseudomonas putida
Hontzeas et al.,
2004
PAHs
Lysini bacillus
Ma et al., 2010
PCBs
Rhodococcus, Luteibacter,
Williamsia
Degradation by Yeasts
Pollutants
Yeasts
References
Aliphatic/petrole
um
hydrocarbons
Bartha, 1986;
Scheuer, 1998;
Was, 2001
Diesel oil
Alkane, fatty
acids
Phenol
PCBs
Linuron,
metroburon
Aniline
Reactive black
PEA, PC, PLA
de Cssia,
2007
Iida, 2000
Mrtberg,
1985
Sasek,
Sietman
Bordjiba, 2001
Mucha, 2010
Yu & Wen,
2005
Tokiwa, 2009
YEASTS
Rhodoturula
Candida tropicalis
Hansenula polymorpha
Aureobasidium pullulans
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Botrytis cinerea
Geotrichum
Hydrocarbons,
pesticide,
gelatin
Chlorpyrifos
Glyphosate
Malachite
green
Fungi
Referenc
es
Chaillan,
Singh,
Steliga
Francesc,
2001
Okparanm
a, 2011;
Maigari,
2015
Steliga,
Chen,
Abruscia
Singh &
Walker,
2006
Youssef, Ali
Alternaria alternata
Fusarium
Penicillium chrysogenum
Trichoderma
Pleurotus ostreatus
cladosporioides
Exophiala
Cladosporium
Rhizopus
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus ustus
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus
Microorganisms
Prototheca zopfii
PAHs, pyrene,
fluoranthene
C. vulgaris, C. pyrenoidosa
C. vulgaris, Lyngbyala gerlerimi, Nostoc
lincki, Oscillatoria rubescens, Elkatothrix
viridis, Volvox aureus
Chroococcus minutus
Gloeocapsa pleurocapsoides, Phormidium
ceylanicum
Chlorella, Anabaena inacqualis,
Westiellopsis prolifica, Stigeoclonium
lenue, Synechococcus sp.
References
Walker,
1975
Wang, 2007;
Ueno, 2008
Megharaj,
1987
Jinqi, 1992
El-Sheekh,
2009
Parikh, 2005
Dwivedi,
2012
ALGAE
Chlorella
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Oscillatoria
Volvox aureus
Nostoc
Synechococcus
Stigeoclonium
Prototheca
Anabaena
PROTOZOA
Ciliate protozoa
surrounding
bacteria
Degradation by GEMs
Pollutants
Aliphatic,
aromatic,
terpenic, PAHs,
PCBs
TCE, BTEX,
salicylate,
naphthalene,
benzoate
BTEX,
naphthalene,
anthracene
TCE, toluene,
benzene
Chlorobiphenyls
Chromium, PCBs,
narcotics
2,4-D
Toluene, mercury
GEMs
References
Pseudomonas
Markandey,
2004;
Erickson, 1993
Sayler, 00;
Panke, 98;
Applegate, 98
Sayler, 2000;
Sousa, 1997
P. pseudoalcaligenes KF707-D2
Suyama, 1996
Hrywna, 1999
Srivastava,
Dyke, Layton,
Masson, 2002
Brim, 2000
In-situ Bioremediation
Natural Attenuation, Biostimulation, Bioaugmentation
Natural attenuation or bioattenuation is the reduction of contaminant
concentrations in the environment through biological processes (microbial
Indigenous
& exogenous plant and animal uptake), physical phenomena (advection,
biodegradation,
microorganisms
dispersion, dilution, diffusion, volatilization, sorption/desorption), and
chemical reactions (ion exchange, complexation, abiotic transformation).
Biostimulation is the addition of soil nutrients, trace minerals, electron
acceptors, or electron donors to enhance the biotransformation of soil
contaminants by indigenous microorganisms. It includes also bioventing and
biosparging.
Bioaugmentation is the technique for improving the capacity of a
contaminated biotope to remove pollution by the introduction of specific
competent strains of exogenous microorganisms or genetically engineered
microorganisms (GEMs).
Ex-situ Bioremediation
Biosurfactants
Biosurfactants or bioemulsifiers are biological surface-active agents that
have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties. Biosurfactants are
produced by either degrading or non-degrading microorganisms to help
on metabolizing carbon and energy source.
Aerobic Degradation:
R
R
NADH
O2
H OH
C
NAD+
NAD+
C
H OH
E1
Alkylbenzene
E2
OH
E3
O2
2,3-Dihydroxyalkylbenzene
Dihydrodiol
O
COOH
OH
NADH
RCOOH
COOH
E4
OH
Ring fission
product
O
2-Oxopenta4-enoate
E1 = Alkylbenzene dioxygenase
E2 = cis-alkylbenzene glycol dehydrogenase
E3 = 2,3-dihydroxyalkylbenzene 1,2-dioxygenase
CoA
Anaerobic Degradation:
CH3
H
C
CH3
2[H]
CH2
Acetophenone
Carboxylase
Acetophenone
1-Phenylethanol
2[H]
CH3
1-Phenylethanol
Dehydrogenase
Ethylbenzene
Dehydrogenase
H2O
O
CoA
HO
Ethylbenzene
CoASH
CH2
Benzoylacetyl-CoA
forming enzyme
Benzoylacetate
CO2
Benzoylacetyl-CoA
CoA thiolase
Benzoylacetate-CoA
CoASH
Benzoyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA
E1
Bacteria involved:
Pseudomonas putida
Fungi (yeast) involved:
Candida maltosa, Candida tropicalis,
Candida apicola
e degradation of a cyclic hydrocarbon:
E2
E3
Enzymes involved:
E1 = alkane monooxygenase
E2 = fatty alcohol
dehydrogenase
E3 = fatty aldehyde
dehydrogenase,
Benzene
Arene oxide
Bacteria involved:
Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus,
Mycobacterium
Fungi (yeast) involved:
Pleurotus ostreatus
cis/trans-dihydrodiol
Naphthalene
cis-1,2-naphthalene 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene
dihydrodiol
Salicylic acid
Cathecol
Organisms involved:
Dehalococcoides,
Thermotogales,
Chloroflexi
Pathway for anaerobic dechlorination of a highly chlorinated congener (Fish & Principe, 1994).
Organisms
involved:
Achromobacter,
Beijerinckia,
Pseudomonas
putida
Pathway for aerobic degradation of PCBs into chlorobenzoates (Sylvestre & Sandossi, 1994).
Physical factors
temperature
pH
moisture
Environmental factors
soil type and porosity
soil organic matter
soil oxidation-reduction potential
Temp.
(Bodishbaugh, 2006)
pH
References
Joutey et al., Biodegradation: Involved Microorganisms & GEMs, 2013.
Das & Chandran, Microbial Degradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminants: An
Overview, 2011.
Maigari & Maigari, Microbial Metabolism of PAHs: A Review, 2015.
Hernndez et al., Pesticide Biodegradation: Mechanisms, Genetics & Strategies to Enhance
the Process, 2013.
Borja et al., Polychlorinated Biphenyls & Their Biodegradation, 2005.
Furukawa & Fujihara, Microbial Degradation of PCBs: Biochemical & Molecular Features,
2008.
Tokiwa et al., Biodegradability of Plastics, 2009.
Leja & Lewandowicz, Polymer Biodegradation & Biodegradable Polymers A Review, 2010.
Ali, Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes - A Review, 2010.
Girma, Microbial Bioremediation of Some Heavy Metals in Soils: An Updated Review, 2015.
Newsome et al., The Biogeochemistry & Bioremediation of Uranium & Other Priority
References
Vidali, Bioremediation: An Overview, 2001.
Kothari et al., Microbial Degradation of Hydrocarbons.
Pandey et al., Microbial Ecology of Hydrocarbon Degradation in the Soil: A Review, 2016.
Harayama et al., Petroleum Biodegradation in Marine Environments, 1999.
Zacharia & Tano, Identity, Physical & Chemical Properties of Pesticides.
Singh & Walker, Microbial Degradation of Organophosphorus Compounds, 2006.
Abraham et al., PCB-degrading Microbial Communities in Soils & Sediments, 2002.
Garrison et al., Bio-Based Polymers with Potential for Biodegradability, 2016.
Dussud & Ghiglione, Bacterial Degradation of Synthetic Plastics, 2014.
Barrgan, Biodegradation of Azo Dyes by Bacteria Inoculated on Solid Media, 2007.
Jain et al., Review on Bioremediation of Heavy Metals with Microbial Isolates &
Amendments on Soil Residue, 2014.
Gazs, The Key Microbial Processes in the Removal of Toxic Metals & Radionuclides from
the Environment, 2001.
Lloyd & Renshaw, Bioremediation of Radioactive Waste: RadionuclideMicrobe Interactions