Why is digestion important?

Foods such as bread, meat and

vegetables are not in a form the
body can use.
Macromolecules are too large to
pass through any cell membrane
Macromolecules are broken down
through hydrolysis into monomers
which can enter the bloodstream
The body can then use these
molecules to build and nourish
cells and provide energy.

Digestion the real world

Story from ib Text page 151

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/00724
95855/student_view0/chapter26/animation__or
gans_of_digestion.html

Digestion

Digestion involves a series of interconnected steps.

1. Ingestion- food enters through mouth
2. Mechanical Processing- movement and chewing of
foods by tongue/teeth and mixing.
3. Digestion- chemical breakdown of food for absorption
4. Secretion- releases water, acids, enzymes
Refer to page 163 IB SG
5. Absorption- movement of sm. molecules,
electrolytes, vitamins and water into the body
6. Excretion- Elimination of wastes

Functions of the Oral Cavity (Buccal)

1. Analysis of potential foods
2. Mechanical processing using teeth, tongue, palates

tear, gnaw and grind food- mastication

tongue compresses and distorts the foods shape, does a
sensory analysis of temp., touch and taste
hard and soft palates

3. Lubrication by mixing with mucous and salivary

secretions produce by:

sublingual, submaxillary and parotid glands

4. Digestion by salivary enzymes.

salivary amylase- breaks down starch in foods (opt. pH 7)

The Esophagus

SWALLOWING
complex reflex that transports food
when proper texture/ consistency

1.
2.
3.

Begins with compaction of food, by tongue,

to form bolus- small mass
Tongue pushes food down and elevates soft
palate
Peristaltic movements of smooth muscle

Esophagus
Circular
muscles
contract,
constricting
passageway
and pushing
bolus ahead
Food
bolus

Longitudinal
muscles contract,
shortening
passageway
ahead of the
bolus

Sphincter
closed

Stomach

Relaxed
muscle layer

Sphincter
open

Stomach

The Stomach

MAJOR FUNCTIONS:

Temporary storage of food

Mechanical breakdown of resistant materials
Breaking of chemical bonds using acids and enzymes
(gastric juice)

Gastric juice is made of:

pepsin (a protease that functions at an optimum pH of 2)

hydrochloric acid
mucus

The Stomach

Produces a soupy mixture- chyme

Has rugae- ridges and folds in stomach, when full or
stretched, it disappears
Lesser Omentum- connects the lesser curvature of
the stomach + deuodenum to the liver
Greater Omentum- hangs from stomach, connects
the stomach with the diaphragm, spleen, colon

Forms enormous pouch which hangs over/ protects the lower

abdomen

The Stomach

THE GASTRIC WALL

Secretes gastric juice which carries out
chemical digestion in the stomach

Parietal cells- secrete hydrochloric acid

Chief cells- secrete pepsinogen, which is converted to
pepsin, by the hydrochloric acid released in parietal
cells

The Small Intestine

~ 6m or 20 ft. long and 4cm in diameter

Runs from stomach to lg. intestine
Most digestion processes happen here
Intestinal wall is lined with villi- finger-like
projections that increase surface area for
absorption

Draw and
add labels
from page
156 IB Text

The Small Intestine

3 SUBDIVISIONS:
Duodenum- closest to stomach

~1 ft. length
Receives bile from liver and gall bladder
Receives trypsin, lipase, amylase, and HCO 3- from pancreas

Jejunum- an abrupt bend begins the Jejunum

bulk of chemical digestion

~ 8 ft. in length

Ileum- third segment

ends at a sphincter called ileocecal valve.

this valve controls the flow of chyme from ileum to the cecum of the Large
Intestine.

*Assimilation of nutrients differs from absorption: the process of

bringing the nutrients to a body cell and using it

Happy Friday!

http://sciencefriday.com/topics/biology/video/02/01/2013/how-owls-turn-heads.html

Small Intestine

Refer to page 164 IB SG

& page 47 IB SG

Adaptions of villi epithelial cells:

Microvilli- surface of each villus that faces the

lumen has microscopic projections to increase
surface area
Mitochondria and Pinocytotic Vesicles- some
molecules are absorbed with active transport thus
need for mitochondria
Tight Junctions- Most cells are surrounded by
intercellular fluid and allow for movement
between cells. NOT the case with villi tight
junctions between cells firmly link cells together.
*Draw Figure 19.10 from IB in notes

The Pancreas

Lies behind/dorsal to stomach toward spleen

Elongated organ, pinkish grey in color
~ 6 in. in length
Produces pancreatic juice to keep chyme pH
levels under control
Secretes trypsin into duodenum
Secretes hormones including insulin and
glucagon

THE LIVER

The Liver

Inferior vena cava

Largest
visceral
organ in
the body
reddish
brown
~3.3lbs
4 LOBES

Stomach

Right lobe
of liver

Right
hepatic duct

Common
bile duct

Gallbladder

Pancreas
Hepatic
portal vein
Pancreatic
duct
Duodenum

Circulation of blood to and from the Liver

The Liver receives blood from 2 major blood

vessels: Hepatic Portal Vein & Hepatic Artery

Hepatic Portal Vein receives blood from the capillaries

within all the villi of the small intestine

Blood in Hepatic Portal Vein varies in two ways from blood

which normally arrives at an organ:

1. Low in pressure because it has already been through a

capillary bed

2. Varies in quantity of nutrients

Hepatic Artery is a branch of the aorta and carries

oxygenated blood to the liver tissues

The Liver is drained by one vessel: Hepatic

Vein
Sinusoids are the capillaries of the liver

Sinusoids are the capillaries of the

liver page 166 IB SG

Sinusoids differ from a typical capillary bed:

Sinusoids are wider than capillaries

Sinusoids contain Kupffer cells that help break down
older RBC for recycling
Sinusoids receive a mixture of oxygenated blood and
nutrient rich blood
Sinusoids are lined by endothelial cells with gaps
between them

These gaps allow large molecules like proteins to be exchanged

between hepatocytes and the bloodstream
Hepatocytes are in direct contact with blood components
making all exchanges with the bloodstream efficient

Functions of the Liver

1.

Removes circulating toxins and metabolic wastes

from the blood
Ethanol, Food Preservatives, Pesticides, Herbicides

2.

Nutrient Storage:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Iron
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Glycogen

Therefore, the liver responds to chemical stimuli to help

regulate blood sugar
Ex.) If blood glucose levels rise- liver removes glucose and synthesizes
glycogen (glycogenesis). If glucose levels fall- liver breaks down
glycogen and releases glucose. (glucogenesis)

3. The liver recycles components of

erythrocytes and haemoglobin
1. Erythrocytes (RBC) have short life span, 120 days. Plasma
membrane becomes fragile and ruptures releasing hemoglobin into
blood plasma.
2.Hemoglobin is absorbed by phagocytosis in liver.
3.Kupffer cells in sinusoids are phagocytic and split hemoglobin into
heme groups and globins.
4.Globins are hydrolysed into amino acids and released into blood
5.Iron is removed from heme groups and a yellow substance called bile
pigment (bilirubin) is left. Iron is reused in bone marrow for new RBC.
Bile pigment makes new bile in liver.

Bile:
Synthesized in liver, excreted to duodenum
Bile ducts from the 4 lobes form common hepatic
duct, which meets the cystic duct to form the common
bile duct which empties into the duodenum
Bile contains water, ions, bilirubin (pigment from
hemoglobin) cholesterol and lipids
Bile salts- help breakdown insoluble lipids

4. The Liver synthesizes plasma

proteins and cholesterol
1.

Plasma Proteins:

1.
2.

3.

Albumin- helps regulate osmotic pressure of

fluids in the body
Fibrinogen- a soluble form of blood clotting
protein which is converted to fibrin when a clot is
needed
Globulins- a widely diverse group of blood
proteins not all of which are produced in the liver

The Liver synthesizes plasma

protein and cholesterol cont
2.

Cholesterol-

* Some cholesterol is ingested and absorbed in foods and

some is synthesized in the liver

Some cholesterol is used to produce bile, some is

carried in bloodstream to be used for cell membranes

Gallbladder

Located under right lobe of liver

Stores bile and concentrates bile for release into
duodenum
Emulsification- bile salts break apart large drops of
lipids and make them accessible for pancreatic
lipases
Pancreatic lipase- pancreatic enzyme that chemically
breaks down triglycerides (opt pH 7)
Stores digestive juices made by liver
When juices become solid gallstones.

The Large Intestine

Horseshoe shape
~5 ft. long, 3 in width
Begins at end of ileum and ends at anus
Lies posterior to stomach and liver and frames
sm. intestine

Functions of the Large Intestine

1. Reabsorb water and compact the feces
2. Absorb vitamins liberated (separated) by bacteria
3. Store fecal material prior to defecation

Regions of the Lg. Intestine

1. Cecum- collects/ stores material from ileum and

begins compaction

appendix attaches to cecum (~3.5)

(inflammation of appendix appendicitis)

2. Colon- larger diameter and thinner wall compared

to the small intestine
Ascending, Transverse, Descending and Sigmoid
Haustrae- small pouches which give lg. int.
segmented appearance
Taenia coli- longitudinal bands of smooth muscle
causing haustrae

Transverse
colon
Ascending
colon
Cancer

Descending
colon

Major Regions of the

Lg. Intestine cont.

3. RectumEnd of digestive tract

Last portion- anorectal canal
Has internal anal sphincter (smooth muscle)
circular muscle inside and an external anal
sphincter (skeletal muscle)

Digestion Disorder - Ulcers

Ulcers are sores on lining of digestive tract.

Peptic ulcers- form in stomach or upper part of
small intestine (duodenum)

Outdated: caused by stress, spicy foods, alcohol.

Most peptic ulcers are caused by bacterial

infection in stomach/ upper intestine, by certain
medications, or by smoking.

Digestion Disorder of Intestines

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

Common problem with the intestines
Cause: the intestines squeeze too hard or not hard enough and cause
food to move too quickly or too slowly through the
intestines
IBS usually begins around age 20 and is more common in
women.
Constipation
Constipation is when you have trouble having bowel movements.
Stools may be very hard, making them so difficult to pass

Digestion and Absorption

Typical meal- mixture of carbohydrates,

proteins, lipids, water, electrolytes and vitamins
These components are handled differently
Lg. organic molecules are broken down through
hydrolysis in order for absorption to occur

amylase breaks down carbohydrates into simple

sugars.
proteases break bonds between amino acids
lipases separate fatty acids from glycerides

If we have all these enzymes,

Why cant humans digest cellulose?

Not a single mammal produces an enzyme to

digest cellulose
Mammals who graze house a large
population of mutualistic microorganisms
which produce cellulase
Although humans do have mutualistic
associations with intestinal bacteria, we do
not have a relationship with bacteria who
produce cellulase.

Digestion and Absorption cont.

Water, electrolytes and vitamins can be

absorbed without a preliminary process

fat-soluble vitamins enclosed within fat

droplets, absorbed with the products of lipid
digestion
water soluble vitamins (9 of them) important
cofactors in enzyme reactions

After Intestine what is left?

Cellulose from cell walls of plants

Lignin- another component of cell walls
Bile Pigments- from bile (give faeces its color)
Intestinal Cells- these break off as food moves
through intestine
Bacteria