Geologic

processes within
the Earth

Mantle convectionis the movement of the mantle

as heat is transferred from the core to the crust. The
temperature of the mantle varies depending
whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of
decay of
radioactiveto
elements
the core. The principal
contributors
the heat
heat
of the molten
core
of
the
core outer
come
from
the
____________________________and
from
the

Magmatismis the activity or the

motion of the magma. Rocks that
are
subjected
to
high
temperature and pressure melt
and
become
the
magma.Magmais a semi-liquid
molten rock mixture that can be
found in the lower portion of the
crust and the upper part of the
mantle.
Depending
on
the
temperature,
pressure,
and

Plutonism
On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea
aboutplutonism. He stated that the
formation of intrusive igneous rocks or
plutonic rocks came from the solidification of
magma beneath the Earths surface. These
rocks will reach the Earths surface through
the process of uplifting- a force that pulls
the crust apart and lets the rocks from the
underground to be brought up.
When the hot molten magma does not
solidify, it will be brought up to the Earths
surface through uplifting. When the magma
reaches the surface, it becomeslava-

 Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to
the surface through a
volcano.Volcanois any
opening in the Earths crust
that allows magma and gases
to be released in the upper
crust. This process of bringing
up the magma is
calledvolcanism.

 Igneouscome from the Latin

wordigniswhich means heat or fire.

Two Types of Igneous Rocks

Intrusive igneous rocksare formed when
the magma hardens before an eruption
occurs. Different rock materials allow the
formation of intrusive igneous rocks. The
most common example is
granite.Graniteis used in floor tiles and
monuments.
Extrusive igneous rocksare formed when
the lava cools and solidifies on the Earths
surface. The texture of these rocks is finer
as compared to the intrusive igneous rocks.
Due to slow cooling of the lava, large
crystals are formed on the rocks. The most

 Metamorphismis the process of

change in the form and structure of
rocks due to intense heat and
pressure. It comes from the Greek
wordmetamorphounmeaning
transform or change shape. The
rocks that undergo metamorphism
are converted to metamorphic
rocks.

 Types of Metamorphism
Contact metamorphismis the process
where the country rock adjacent to the
igneous intrusions is altered by the high
heat coming from the intrusions.Country
rocksare rocks surrounding the igneous
intrusions.Igneous intrusionsform
when molten magma moves and seeps
through fractures and in between crystals
of rocks. The zone of metamorphosis that
surrounds the intrusions is
calledhalooraureole. Some examples of
rocks that undergo contact metamorphism
include marble and emery rock.

 Dynamic metamorphismis the

process where rocks along the fault
zones are altered due to high
pressure. The rocks that are formed
with this type of metamorphism are
called mylonites.Mylonitesare
compact, fine-grained rocks with thin
laminations or layers.
Regional metamorphismis the
most common form of
metamorphism that occurs in broad
areas. It is caused by high

 Types of Stresses in the Earths

Crust
Compressioncauses the rocks to
push or to collide with each other.
This can make the rocks come
together or make the plates rise.
Mountains and hills could be formed
when two plates collide.

 Tensionis the opposite of

compression. The tension force pulls
the rocks away from each other. This
force created continental drifts and
mid-ocean ridges. It moved the
oceanic crust away from each other
that resulted in the rising of less
dense rocks coming from the mantle.

 Shear forcepushes the crust in different directions.

Shearing results in the breaking of the large parts of the
crust into smaller sizes. This force always happens along
the plate boundaries.Plate boundariesare the
location where the two plates meet. When the two
plates rub each other and move in opposite directions, it
creates friction. This friction leads to the shaking of the
Earths ground orearthquake.

 How intrusive and extrusive igneous

rock form?
What are the types of stress in
Earth's crust? What do they form?
Discuss one type of metamorphism.