Steering Systems

Any mode of transportation used by people must have some means of control.
For the automobile, two primary control systems are at the driver's disposal:
(1) the steering system, and (2) the braking system.
The steering mechanism converts the driver's rotational input at the steering
wheel into a change in the steering angle of the vehicle's steering road
wheels.
For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the
inside wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a
tighter turn than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each
wheel, the lines will intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of
the steering linkage makes the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.

Steering behavior
The requirements in terms of steering behavior can be
summarized as follows:
1. Jolts from irregularities in the road surface must be damped as
much as possible during transmission to the steering wheel.
However, such damping must not cause the driver to lose contact
with the road.
2. The basic design of the steering kinematics must satisfy the
Ackermann conditions: the extensions of the wheel axes of the left
and right front wheels, when at an angle, intersect on an
extension of the rear axle.

3. When the steering wheel is released, the wheels must return

automatically to the straight-ahead position and must remain stable in
this position.
4. The steering should have as Iow ratio as possible (number of steeringwheel turns from lock to lock) in order to obtain ease of handling. The
steering forces involved are determined not only by the steering ratio but
also by the front suspension load, the turning circle, the suspension
geometry (caster angle, kingpin angle, kingpin offset), the properties of
the tire tread and the road surface.
Thesteering ratiois the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to
how far the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360
degrees) of the steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20
degrees, then the steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher
ratio means that you have to turn the steering wheel more to get the
wheels to turn a given distance. However, less effort is required because
of the highergear ratio.

Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than

larger cars and trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker
response -- you don't have to turn the steering wheel as much to
get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable trait
in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with
the lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is not
excessive.
Some cars havevariable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-andpinion gearset that has a different tooth pitch (number of teeth
per inch) in the center than it has on the outside. This makes the
car respond quickly when starting a turn (the rack is near the
center), and also reduces effort near the wheel's turning limits.

Steering System
Linkage Steering System (Worm Gear) Parts
Steering Wheel used by the driver to rotate a
steering shaft that passes through the steering
column.

Steering Shaft transfers turning motion from

the steering wheel to the steering gearbox.

Steering Column supports the steering column

and steering shaft.

Steering gears are enclosed in a casing known as steering gear

box.

A steering box must have the following qualities:

- no play in the straight-ahead position,
-low friction, resulting in high efficiency,
- high rigidity,
- readjustability.

For these reasons, two types have become established:

Rack-and-pinion Steering

Basically, as the name implies, the rack-and-pinion steering consists

of a rack and a pinion, The steering ratio is defined by the ratio of
pinion revolutions (steering-wheel revolutions) to rack travel.
Suitable toothing of the rack allows the ratio to be made variable
over the travel. This lowers the actuating force or reduces the travel
for steering corrections.
Rack-and-pinion steeringis quickly becoming the most common
type of steering on cars, small trucks. It is actually a pretty simple
mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gearset is enclosed in a metal tube,
with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called
atie rod, connects to each end of the rack.
Thepinion gearis attached to the steering shaft. When you turn
the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack.

The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into
the linear motion needed to turn the wheels.
It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the
wheels.
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of
the steering wheel to make the wheels turn from lock to lock
(from far left to far right).
The primary components of the rack and pinion steering
system are:
Rubber bellows
Pinion
Rack
Inner ball joint or socket
Tie-rod

Rubber bellows

This rubber bellows is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It

protects the inner joints from dirt and contaminants. In addition, it
retains the grease lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing.
There is an identical bellows on the other end of the rack for the
opposite side connection.

Pinion

The pinion is connected to the steering column. As the

driver turns the steering wheel, the forces are transferred
to the pinion and it then causes the rack to move in either
direction. This is achieved by having the pinion in constant
mesh with the rack.

Rack

The rack slides in the housing and is moved by the action of the
meshed pinion into the teeth of the rack. It normally has an
adjustable bush opposite the pinion to control their meshing, and a
nylon bush at the other end.

Inner ball joint or socket

The inner ball joint is attached to the tie-rod, to allow for

suspension movement and slight changes in steering
angles

Tie-rod

A tie rod end is attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as

the rack is extended or retracted when the vehicle is
negotiating turns. Some tie-rods and tie-rod ends are left or
right hand threaded. This allows toe-in or toe-out to be
adjusted to the manufacturer's specifications.

Toe

Toe is defined as the difference of the distance between the leading edge of
the wheels and the distance between the trailing edge of the wheels when
viewed from above. Toe-in means the front of the wheels are closer than the
rear; toe-out implies the opposite. Figure 7.20 shows both cases.
For a rear-wheel-drive vehicle, the front wheels normally have a slight
amount of toe-in.. When the vehicle begins to roll, rolling resistance
produces a force through the tire contact patch perpendicular to the rolling
axis. This force produces a torque around the steering axis that tends to
cause the wheels to toe-out. The slight toe-in allows for this, and when
rolling, the wheels align along the axis of the vehicle. Conversely, frontwheel-drive vehicles require slight toe out. In this case, the tractive force of
the front wheels produces a moment about the steering axis that tends to
toe the wheels inward. In this case, proper toe-out absorbs this motion and
allows the wheels to parallel the direction of motion of the vehicle.

Power Rack-and-pinion
When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering
system, the rack has a slightly different design.
Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the
middle. The piston is connected to the rack. There are
two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston.
Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston
forces the piston to move, which in turn moves the
rack, providing the power assist.

Recirculating-ball steering

The forces generated between steering worm and steering

nut are transmitted via a low-friction recirculating row of
balls. The steering nut acts on the steering shaft via gear
teeth. A variable ratio is possible with this steering box,

Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs

today. The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different
than on a rack-and-pinion system.
The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear.
The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it.
This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which
engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram
above). The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod,
similar to a bolt, that sticks into the hole in the block. When
the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of twisting
further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt
is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which
moves the gear that turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the

block, all of the threads are filled with ball bearings that
recirculate through the gear as it turns. The balls actually
serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in
the gear; second, they reduce slop in the gear. Slop would
be felt when you change the direction of the steering wheel
-- without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would
come out of contact with each other for a moment, making
the steering wheel feel loose.
Power steering in a recirculating-ball system works similarly
to a rack-and-pinion system. Assist is provided by supplying
higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block.

 From the 1950s to the 1980s, the conventional

recirculating ball steering gear was the dominant
system. The 1980s saw the introduction of the
front-wheel-drive passenger car with rack and
pinion steering. Rack and pinion systems weigh
less and use fewer parts. Also, the manufacturers
were able to bring the cost of rack and pinion
systems down due to increased automation in the
final machining process.
Today, most passenger cars and light trucks are
equipped with rack and pinion steering.

Power Steering

Power steeringhelps drivers steer vehicles by increasing steering effort of the steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric
actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only slight effort regardless of
conditions. Power steering helps considerably when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly. As well, power steering provides
some feedback of forces acting on the front wheels to give an ongoing sense of how the wheels are interacting with the
road; this is typically called "rad feel"

 Representative power steering systems for cars increase steering

effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder, which is part of a
servo system. These systems have a direct mechanical
connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that
steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure
still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the
assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types,
power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the
rest of the power-steering system.
Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged
hinge in the middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to
become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic
cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to
steer.

Hydraulic power-assisted
steering
Energy source
The energy source consists of a vane pump (generally driven by the
engine) with an integral oil-flow regulator, an oil reservoir and connecting
hoses and pipes.
The pump must be dimensioned so that it generates sufficient pressure to
enable rotation of the steering wheel at a speed of at least 15 m/s even
when the engine is only idling.
The compulsory pressure-limiting valve required on hydraulic systems is
usually integrated. .
The pump and the system components must be designed such that the
operating temperature of the hydraulic fluid does not rise to an excessive
level (<100C) and such that no noise is generated and the oil does not
foam.

Control valve

All power steering pumps have a flow-control valve to vary fluid flow and
power steering system pressures. A pressure relief valve prevents
excessive pressures developing when the steering is on full-lock, and held
against its stops. The flow control valve is located at the outlet fitting of the
pump.
During slow cornering, or when parking, pump speeds are normally low.
There is less demand for fluid flow, but to provide the required assistance,
high pressure is needed. Discharge ports direct the fluid to the outlet, and
then to the steering gear. The outlet fluid pressure is slightly lower than the
internal high pressure coming from the pump.

Pump
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by arotaryvane pump.This pump is driven by the car's engine with a belt
and pulley. It contains a set of retractable vanes that spin inside
an oval chamber.
As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line
at low pressure and force it into the outlet at high pressure. The
amount of flow provided by the pump depends on the car's
engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate
flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves
much more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at
faster speeds.
The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the
pressure does not get too high, especially at high engine speeds
when so much fluid is being pumped.

Rotary Valve

A power-steering system should assist the driver only when

he is exerting force on the steering wheel (such as when
starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force (such
as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't
provide any assist. The device that senses the force on the
steering wheel is called therotary valve.

Electric Power Assist Steering (EPAS) with PullDrift Compensation

Pull-Drift Compensation starts with EPAS technology, which
replaces the traditional hydraulic-assist powersteering pump with
an electric motor. This increases fuel economy because the electric
motor operates only when steering assistance is required.
Sensors constantly measure steering wheel torque applied by
the driver to maintain the vehicles path. Continuous adjustments
are made as the system resets to adapt to changing road
conditions or maneuvers, such as the vehicle turning a corner.
When the system detects a pulling or drifting condition, such
as a crowned road surface, it provides torque assistance to help
make steering easier. For drivers, this assistance is seamless and
imperceptible.
EPAS technology can be fine-tuned by engineers to fit the
driving characteristics of varying products, whether its a luxury
sedan or sporty compact SUV.

A steering mechanism as a
machine

The force required to steer a vehicle is often considerably

larger than a driver can comfortably exert. The steering
mechanism is a machine that allows the driver of a vehicle to
operate the steering without having to exert a large force at
the steering wheel. The rack and pinion steering mechanism
that is widely used on light vehicles is a convenient example
of such a machine